What were the major early civilizations of Mexico? Who is Hernán Cortez and how did he affect the history of Mexico? How did Spain affect Mexico and its culture? What happened during the Mexican War of Independence and the Mexican-American War? What are some of the challenges facing Mexico today, such as drug cartels and migrant border issues? What history and culture is helpful to know before traveling to Mexico?
We'll dive into these questions and many more in today's know before you go episode, a brief history of Mexico. Welcome to Wiser World, a podcast for busy people who need a refresher on all things world. Here we explore different regions of the globe, giving you the facts and context you need to think historically about current events. I truly believe that the more we learn about the world, the more we embrace our shared humanity. I'm your host, Ali Roper. Thanks for being here.
Hello, I am so excited about this episode. I have a deep love for Mexico. I've been many times. And I hope I can do my Mexican friends proud today as we talk about their beautiful country's complex history. This is a really multifaceted country and so I hope I can do it justice. A quick announcement before we dive in, I'm taking my summer break for the month of July. So no new episodes will be coming out in July.
I'll be back in August with episodes on Israel that I have been working on for a very long time and I'm stoked to share. For those of you who support the Patreon, Patreon will just be paused for the month of July. So you don't won't be charged. You don't have to do anything. It will reapp again in August. And thank you again for all those who signed up for the Patreon. I so appreciate you. And today, be looking for that post on Mexico with additional resources for you.
Also a heads up before we talk about Mexico, I do talk about the drug trade and drugs in this episode. So if you got little ears around, just keep that in mind. Okay, let's talk about Mexico. Let's talk location first. So Mexico shares borders with two countries, the United States of America and Guatemala. Its northern border with the United States is a very long border of approximately 1900 miles or that's roughly 3000 kilometers.
And that border touches the US states of California, Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas. To the south, its southern border is with Guatemala, where Central America begins. And on the west, we have the Pacific Ocean, on the east, we have the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea. Mexico also has two peninsula's. To the west is a long skinny strip of land called the Baja. And to the east, there is a larger peninsula that kind of curves up into the Gulf of Mexico called the Yucatan Peninsula.
Mexico is the 13th largest country in the world. And its geography has a wide range from rainforests to deserts. And as a result, there are unique cultural differences depending on where you go in the country. So let's talk about these major regions of Mexico and how they differ from one another. And I'm going to speak in generalities here, right? Northern Mexico is the region that has these massive desert landscapes, such as the Chihuahua Desert. There's hot summers, cold winters.
Northern Mexico also has a stronger cowboy or vacuero, ranching culture with traditions like rodeos and cattle ranches. And the cuisine in this region is known for its carne asada, grilled meat, tortillas, major cities in this region include Monterey and Ciudad Juarez. Then we have central Mexico. This is home to the Mexican Plateau, which includes the Valley of Mexico. It has a more mild climate with cooler temperatures because it has a higher altitude.
And this region is known for its cultural and historical significance with cities like Mexico City, Puebla, Guadalajara, Central Mexico is characterized by colonial architecture, which we'll talk about a lot in a minute. Vibrant art scenes, a lot of fusion of indigenous and Spanish influences. Then we have, let's go over to the Gulf Coast. The Gulf Coast region is located along that eastern coast of Mexico, facing the Gulf of Mexico. And it is known for lush green vegetation.
It's got a really tropical climate, beautiful beaches. This region is also very culturally diverse with influences from indigenous cultures, Afro-Mexican communities, as well as Spanish colonial heritage. Major cities in this region are better crews, Tampico and Bia Hermosa. We also have the Yucatan Peninsula on that south eastern part of Mexico. And it's known for its coastline with the Caribbean, these crystal clear sinkholes, ancient Mayan ruins like Chizaniza.
And the Yucatan Peninsula has this distinct Mayan heritage, which again we'll talk about in a second. Rich cultural heritage, traditional cuisine, really unique architectural styles, like those iconic Mayan pyramids. On the Pacific coast, so we're going to go west now. That stretches along the western side of the country, it borders the Pacific Ocean. It is characterized by beautiful beaches as well, really rugged cliffs, tropical forests.
And this region includes popular tourist places like Puerto Vallarta, Mazatlan. This Pacific coast is known for its surfing spots, lots of marine life, really laid back beach lifestyle. And within these regions, Mexico has 31 states. The capital of Mexico is Mexico City. Just in Mexico City alone, there are 9 million people, but if you tack on the other metropolitan areas around the city, the population is around 21 million. That makes it one of the largest cities in the world.
In some parts of Mexico City, the freeways can be eight lanes going in just one direction. So pretty busy place. Let's talk about the economy for a second. So because Mexico has such a wide range when it comes to climate, it can grow a lot of different types of agriculture and is one of the top agricultural exporters in the world, especially for avocados and tomatoes. They also grow berries, citrus fruits, bananas, peppers, chilies, famous for their chilies, right? Mango, sugar cane, lots more.
It also exports coffee, cacao, tequila, beer, lots of processed food products as well. It's also a pretty significant exporter of automobiles, auto parts. Many major car manufacturers actually have their production facilities in Mexico. So it's totally a hub for that. Likewise, electrical equipment like TVs and computers and medical devices, you know, steel, metal products, all very popular in Mexico. Mexico also has oil. It has significant petroleum reserves.
And we'll talk a little bit more about this later on. The currency of Mexico is the peso. The most popular and official language in Mexico is Spanish. However, there are several other indigenous languages that are spoken by different communities, 68 to be exact. And depending on the region you're in, you may not actually hear much Spanish. Some of these languages date back to the Mayan civilizations, the Aztec civilizations we're going to talk about. So they can be very, very old.
And so just know that there are different dialects within each of them and not just Spanish is spoken in Mexico. When it comes to religion, the most popular religion is by far Roman Catholic. 80 to 85% of Mexicans identify as Roman Catholic, even if they aren't going to mass regularly. Catholicism plays a pretty significant role in Mexican culture, you know, festivals and holidays and architecture have all been influenced by the Catholic Church.
There are other Christian faiths that are on the rise in Mexico and other faiths such as Judaism, Islam, Buddhism, and indigenous religions are also practiced in Mexico. But by far the most popular is Roman Catholic. Mexico is very famous for its food. And personally, I think it's for a good reason. Mexican food can be very simple or very complex, but it's always seasoned well, which is why many people travel to Mexico to study food. It is so hard to pick what food to share on here.
But here are some of the most popular foods that have come out of Mexico. We've got tacos. Tacos are a quintessential Mexican dish. There's flat, thin tortillas, usually made of corn or flour filled with different ingredients like grilled meat, carne asada, marinated pork, al pastor, or you can do seasoned shredded chicken, or pork, carnitas. Tacos are typically topped with salsa, onions, cilantro, and lime.
Guacamole is a really popular Mexican dish, made of mashed avocados and additional seasoning. We've also got enchiladas. These are tortillas filled with a variety of ingredients like meat, cheese, beans, and vegetables rolled up and then topped with a chili-based sauce. We've also got chiles rianos. These are large chili peppers, typically poblano peppers, and they're stuffed with cheese and meat.
And usually they're coated in an egg batter, and then they're fried until crispy and serve the salsa. Tacos are a traditional Mexican dish made from masa, which is a dough made from corn. It's filled with a variety of fillings like meat, cheese, vegetables, and this mixture is wrapped in a corn husk and steamed. And Tacos are very difficult and involved to make, and so they're often enjoyed during festifications.
We've got salsa's, all different types of salsa's ranging from really mild to very, very hot, made with tomatoes, chilies, onions, and herbs. Great sauces. Additionally, we've got something called mole. This is a rich and complex sauce made with chili peppers, spices, nuts, seeds, and chocolate. And this sauce is often served over meats such as chicken or pork. And if you haven't tried mole, it's really a distinctive taste. We've got posole. This is also a traditional Mexican soup.
And it's made with harmony, which are these large corn kernels, meat usually pork. And it's seasoned with chili peppers, garlic, and other spices, and usually garnished with lettuce and radishes, and onions and limes, and it's this really delicious soup. Also, last but not least, we got churros, right? Fried dough typically sprinkled with sugar and cinnamon, and often served with a side of hot chocolate for dipping, just like in Spain, if you listen to my Spain episode.
Okay, now I'm really hungry, but I just have to say how grateful I am to many Mexicans for sharing their food with us because I personally love it. And I think the world is really benefited from Mexican food. Okay, let's talk about distinctive traditions and festivals. What makes Mexican culture unique? Well, every region and family is unique, obviously, but there are some things that are classically Mexican, like family values.
Mexicans often have really strong family ties with extended family members and often live in large family units with their grandparents. Or nearby their aunts and uncles. Respect for your elders is really important, and being polite and having good manners with elders is part of that. Because of this, weddings and birthdays and holidays are a big deal for families. And Mexicans have many holidays, but some of the biggest are day of the dead, or Dia de los Muertos.
This is celebrated in the beginning of November, and it's a colorful and festive holiday that honors deceased loved ones. So families often create altars that are covered with photos and candles and flowers and favorite foods and drinks of people and their families who have died. And it's a time of remembrance and storytelling and celebrating the continuation of life. Next, we have Independence Day. This is celebrated on September 16th, and it commemorates Mexico's independence from Spain.
And it usually involves fireworks and parades and music and traditional food and drinks. At Christmas time, many Mexicans celebrate Las Posadas, which is a Christmas tradition celebrated from December 16th to the 24th. And it reenacts Mary and Joseph's search for a place to stay in Bethlehem. There are processions and caroling and the reenactment of the nativity scene takes place with people going from house to house, seeking shelter, and often ends in a festive gathering.
I could go on and on about festivals and holidays in Mexico, but I'm going to just do one more. And that is Simónosanta, which is Holy Week. This is the week leading up to Easter. It's usually observed with religious processions, reenactments of biblical events, and really elaborate street decorations. And it's a time of reflection and religious devotion for many Mexicans. There are again, many, many more festivals and holidays. So I hope you look some up.
Also on the culture topic, we've got Mariachi music. This is traditional Mexican music. Usually with a band of trumpets, guitars, violins. And it's usually associated with celebrations and cultural events. Mexicans in general are viewed as very lively people. They are often known for a good sense of humor, love to laugh, make fun of each other, and finding goodness in really tough situations. They're warm, warm people.
When it comes to punctuality, it's really valued in a business setting in Mexico, but social events operate on a really relaxed timeline. So if you're invited to a Mexican home for dinner, it's not unheard of to arrive like 30 minutes late. There have also been so many amazing thinkers and artists to come out of Mexico, but I'm only going to talk about three. We got Frida Kahlo and Diego Rivera. They were arguably the most well-known artists. Frida's very iconic.
She has those autobiographical paintings that showcase her really notable unibrow. And that made her famous all over the world. She really challenged some parts of Mexican culture. And Diego Rivera, who actually was married to her for some time, was a famous muralist and painter. And Mexican art is known for being very vibrant. He's really known for these huge public murals that depicted Mexican history and social issues and indigenous culture.
So those are the two really popular artists from Mexico. We also have Oktawio Paz. He was a Mexican writer, a poet, a diplomat, one of the most influential intellectuals to come out of Mexico as well. The most popular sport in Mexico is football. Otherwise known as soccer. It has a professional league that is one of the strongest in the Americas. And Mexicans also like boxing, baseball, and Lucha Libre, which is like pro wrestling.
Before we get into the history, let's talk a little bit about tourism. Traveling to Mexico can be a complicated topic since immigration into the United States and drug-related crime are pretty thorny issues. We'll talk about a little bit in this episode. But tourism plays a significant role in Mexico's economy, especially in areas like Cancun, Cabo, Rivia Ramaya, Puerto Vallarta, areas that have historical sites.
Parts of Mexico are generally safe to travel to, but there are certain regions that are on the U.S. travel advisory because of higher crime rates. So staying informed before you travel to Mexico is a good idea. Generally, the northern border states, again, those ones that border the U.S., have experienced higher drug-related violence and organized crime than in some other areas of Mexico. The states of Michoacán, Sinaloa, and Guerrero also have higher violence.
But personally, and this is just my take, I feel kind of bad for these states because there are plenty of cities within those states that are safer to travel to, but the whole state gets a bad rap because of these cities. C. Juarez, which is located right on the border with the U.S., has had a history of drug-related violence is not recommended for travel. Ultimately, I think it's just a good idea to look up where you want to go to, read a variety of articles and opinions about it.
Anytime I have traveled to Mexico, I've had a really wonderful experience, but just like anywhere, it's really a good idea to be aware and careful before traveling there. And there's also parts of Mexico where the water is not safe to drink for outsiders. So just be aware of that in general. Okay, let's talk about the history of Mexico. It's not known who exactly were the first people to live in Mexico or where they came from.
There are many theories, but we do know that Mexico was home to several massive civilizations over the years. Around 2000 BC, agricultural practices began to develop in several parts of Mexico. People started cultivating crops like corn, beans, squash, chili peppers, and civilizations began to form that developed into complex societies. But by 1500 BC, the Olmec civilization emerged along that Gulf Coast of Mexico.
And the Olmecs were considered one of the earliest advanced civilizations in Mesoamerica. They constructed these really impressive ceremonial centers that have these large stone platforms and pyramids and these colossal stone heads. They traded a lot. When they declined, other cultures emerged like the Zapotec civilization in the Wohaka region with their pyramids and palaces and ball courts. We also have the Maya civilization.
It began to grow in Mexico, Guatemala, the Lies, parts of Honduras and El Salvador. The Mayans had city states with really impressive architecture and elaborate ceremonial complexes. And they developed a very sophisticated writing system like hieroglyphics. And as they also were very advanced in their calendaring and astronomy, they were excellent in mathematics, really created a complex numerical system. They built these huge pyramids in the central highlands of Mexico.
It became one of the largest cities in the world at the time with over 100,000 people. And both the Zapotecs and the Mayans were around for a really long time, like to the tune of a thousands of years. They had peaks and falls with many influential cities and due to unrest and decline of central authority, the Mayans eventually declined around 900 AD. And the toll texts emerged after this and then came the Aztecs.
The Aztecs migrated in and dominated much of Mexico from the early 1300s until the time the Spanish explorers came to Mexico in the early 1500s. And the Aztecs built a massive city called Tenochtitlan in 1325 AD. And it was built in the middle of the lake and was one of the largest cities in the world at the time. It was connected to the mainland by canals that were super impressive. And Mexico City today sits on top of this ancient city of Tenochtitlan.
And the Aztecs became the most powerful city state around through alliances and military conquests they really dominated for a long time. They also practiced human sacrifice. The Aztecs believed that offering human blood to their gods was essential for the world to continue on. And so they would take people in particular prisoners of war that they choose as sacrificial victims. And then they had these rituals that would take place on top of pyramids and the heart of the victim would be removed.
So pretty gory stuff. They also had a highly accurate calendar system. And were one of the first civilizations to grow and eat chocolate. In the late 1400s, that began what's often known as the age of exploration. When European nations began exploring different areas of the world and subsequently colonizing these regions and using these resources to grow super vast empires, right? In 1519, the Spanish conquistador and non-Cortez arrived in Mexico.
I took an entire class in college on this time period in history. So almost feels like a sin to only spend a minute on what happened here because it's very complex. But here's a little overview of what happened. The Aztec people had enemies. And Cortez took advantage of that. He recognized the rivalries and formed alliances with some of those groups which gave him military support and information about the weaknesses of the Aztecs.
And he and his army marched to Tenochtitlan, which at the time was ruled by Emperor Moktazuma II. And if first when he arrived when Hernan Cortez arrived, Moktazuma treated him as a guest, seeing him as a god or representative of his god. And this gave Cortez the upper hand. And he took Moktazuma II hostage and gained control of the city. Suddenly the Aztec people are not fans of the Spanish, right? And they revolted and forced the Spanish to leave the city killing many of them.
Cortez regrouped, made new alliances and was back in 1521. And they besieged the city by cutting off its supplies and weakening it gradually over months and months of fighting and weakening. The Aztecs were defeated in August 1521. The Spanish also had firearms and horses and diseases that devastated the indigenous population. Thus began the beginning of Spanish colonization in Mexico. So now Mexico is a colony of the Spanish Empire. They actually called it new Spain.
And they introduced a system where the Spanish settlers controlled indigenous communities and their labor, often exploiting this labor and forcing them to work in very difficult conditions. The Spanish maintained a very strict social hierarchy with Spanish-born Pininzulares holding the highest positions of power. And then underneath them were followed the Criolos, which were the people of Spanish descent that were born in the Americas.
And then below them were mestizos, which were mixed Spanish and indigenous heritage. And then below that were indigenous populations. So very strict social hierarchy, definitely in favor of Spanish blood. If you're full blown Spanish, you're gonna be treated better. They introduced Christianity as well, hence why Mexico is mostly Catholic today. Spanish missionaries worked to establish missions throughout Mexico, making cathedrals and churches in the Spanish architectural style.
And over time, a blending of indigenous and Spanish cultures formed when it came to language, religion, art, music, customs, culture, and the distinct Mexican culture of today really is evidence of that. The Spanish also mined silver mines, which made the Spanish Empire rich for a period of time. If you're interested in knowing how all of this change life in Spain, you can listen to my know before you go episode on Spain, it's episode 27. You can kind of see the other side of the coin.
The economy of Mexico grew enormously during this time. Spain made a lot of changes to trade, taxation, administrative structures. But by the late 1700s, the enlightenment ideas from Europe and the United States Revolution began influencing people in Mexico. And thinkers and scholars began to question more Spanish colonial rule wanted more independence. Mexicans began to have a stronger sense of identity.
You know, wanting more rights, equality and liberty against this really rigid hierarchical system. And in the early 1800s, more and more movements began against Spanish rule, many actually by Catholic priests. And in 1810 Miguel Hidalgo, a Catholic priest, issued what's called the grito de Dolores. It's like a Mexican battle cry, essentially, calling for the end of Spanish rule. And thus began the Mexican War of Independence. Hidalgo was executed in 1811.
And Morelos took over as a leader, drew up insurgent forces to capture cities. And then there was a Spanish military officer who actually switched sides and joined the independence movement helped unite everyone together. His name was Agustín de Iterbide. And he continued the war that lasted for 10 years until finally Mexico achieved independence in 1821, became its own independent nation after exactly 300 years of Spanish control.
Within a few years, Mexico transitioned into a federal republic with the hopes of democracy. The Constitution of 1824 was enacted, which created a federal system with essential government and individual states. At the time, Mexico was much, much bigger than it is now. It was all of present day Mexico, but also had parts of modern day California, Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, Utah, parts of Colorado, and Wyoming. Those are US states.
It also went down into some of Central America and part of the Caribbean, like Cuba, Puerto Rico, Dominican Republic, Belize. And there was a lot of political instability during this time, with struggles for who would be in power and how Mexico would be led. It was not a smooth transition. There were disagreements between if there should be a strong central government or if individual states should have more autonomy and freedom.
If you've been listening to my podcast at all, these issues really have been going on forever. Issues between the central government and states and how things should be run. They're really the bread and butter of world history. Now, some of the states launched into rebellion against the way that they were being governed by the central government. And one state in particular was the state of Texas. It declared independence from Mexico in 1836 and said it was an independent Republic of Texas.
Now, Mexico refused to recognize this, just saw Texas as the rebellious bunch of North. And Texas did have issues with forming a stable government and defending its borders. In 1845, the US decided it wanted to annex Texas or basically take Texas in as part of the United States. And in December of 1845, Texas was officially admitted as the 28th state of the United States. But Mexico's like, no, no, Texas is still ours. We've been having border disputes for nearly 10 years with Texas.
So now the US and Mexico are tense. And the Mexican-American war happens from 1846 to 1848. US forces captured a lot of territory in northern Mexico during this war and finally invaded into Mexico City, which finally ended the war. The Mexican-American war ended with the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo on February 2, 1848. And under this treaty, Mexico recognized the annexation of Texas and ceded a huge territory to the United States.
That includes present-day California, New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, Utah, parts of Colorado, and Wyoming. In return, the US agreed to pay Mexico $15 million and take on some of Mexico's debts. The war really strained relations between Mexico and the United States. Mexico lost a ton of territory with this war. And it led to lingering animosity and kind of shaped the perception of the United States as an imperial power in the eyes of many Mexicans.
Mexico faced economic difficulties during this time, really high levels of debt, a struggling agricultural sector, political instability was rampant. There were lots of coups and upright zines and changes in government, presidents rose and fell. There were authoritarian leaders. Politics were really difficult and inconsistent during this time. From the 1850s to 1870s, it also underwent a series of social and political reforms known as La Reforma.
And this was led by politicians like Benito Juarez. These reforms were aimed to weaken the power of the Catholic Church, which was still very powerful. Also established secular governments, implement land reforms, promote education and civil liberties. Weirdly enough, in 1862, French forces invaded Mexico wanting to establish a French controlled empire. I did not actually know that. I don't think I was taught that in school.
The French installed Maximilian I of Austria as emperor of Mexico in 1864. However, Mexicans resisted, again, figures like Benito Juarez were part of this. And the French occupation was ultimately defeated and Maximilian was executed. And this led to the restoration of the Mexican Republic. Porfirio Diaz, a general, came to power in 1876 and ruled Mexico for nearly 30 years until 1911. So not exactly a democracy at this point, right? If he's ruling Mexico for 30 years.
He was known for maintaining control through the military, censoring and suppressing opposition. Geez, you know, we've studied a lot of countries now and it seems like this is a major theme. Censorship, suppression of opposition to the government, definitely a theme in world history in almost every single country and something to watch out for in whatever country you live in. Anyway, this period's known as the Porfiriocto.
And it had a lot of economic developments, and Mexico modernized a lot, mines, railroads grew, benefited the upper class quite a bit. And there was a widening gap between the rich and the poor. And as the vast majority of the population were experiencing poverty and very poor working conditions, Mexico had a lot of discontent during this time. Rebellions against Diaz's dictatorship began happening as people were really sick of the political repression.
And thus began what's called the Mexican Revolution. It began in 1910 and lasted about 10 years. It was a period of intense social upheaval. The revolutionaries had a lot of fish to fry, but their biggest one was on land reforms. Over time, these large estates were eventually redistributed to peasants and indigenous communities. And workers' rights and creating a more democratic government were also top of mind.
People like Francisco Marero, Emiliano Zapata, and Panchovia were key revolutionary leaders. During this time of the revolution, there were a lot of different groups and people with different ideas on how Mexico should be governed and they fought amongst themselves. It wasn't many senses like a civil war with some groups taking over power for some time and groups fighting amongst each other.
Eventually, the revolution resulted in Diaz being overthrown and the drafting of a new constitution in 1917 that is still around today. This was under President Caranza. And this constitution recognized the rights of indigenous communities, such as protecting their land, their language and cultural heritage. It also emphasized principles of equality, land redistribution. This constitution is still in effect today, like I said.
And in the time following the revolution, the goal really was to stabilize Mexico. It had been through a lot, rebuild the economy after this painful revolution. And leaders began to emphasize more education promoting literacy and teaching culture in school, helping Mexico to create a national identity. Since then, Mexico has had a federal, presidential, representative, democratic republic. Basically, it's a democratic republic with a president.
If you want to learn more about the government systems, you can listen to episode 26. Mexico has an executive branch. The president of Mexico serves as the head of state. This president is elected through popular vote and serves for six years. Though I will say in the early days, many presidents didn't last more than two years. It was very unsteady times.
Mexico also has a legislative branch with two chambers of Congress and a judicial branch that's separate from the legislative branches that make laws. Mexico has a lot of political parties. Many of the parties around today formed in the 1920s and 30s during this time I was talking about of trying to stabilize Mexico. One of these parties was what is now known today as the PRI. And this party was the major dominant political party in Mexico for 71 years from 1929 to 2000.
And during this time when the PRI was the dominant political party, some major things happened in Mexico. So let's talk about them. First, in 1938, president Cardinas nationalized Mexico's oil industry. This basically means that they kicked out all foreign oil companies because there were disputes between international oil companies and Mexican workers. Mexico then established a state-owned oil company called PEMEX. This was a very popular move in Mexico but was not seen happily by outsiders.
Many US and British companies boycotted Mexican products for a time. PEMEX had a monopoly over the oil industry in Mexico for 70 years. It ended in 2013 when other oil companies were able to start exploring and drilling for oil in Mexico. In fact, you'll still see PEMEX all over Mexico. In the 1950s, there was also a movement to push for women's suffrage and women's education. And in 1953, women gained the right to vote in national elections.
The 1950s and 60s were also times when Mexico's government started pushing from Mexico to produce more of its own goods instead of relying on imported goods. And there was a lot of industrial growth in Mexico. The PRI, again, that dominant political party, also started getting some heat with allegations of corruption. In the late 1960s, students began demanding more political openness and democracy. There was a massive protest in Tlatelóco Square on October 2, 1968.
And the government cracked down to suppress it and hundreds of demonstrators were killed or went missing. If you've listened to my episodes on China or Iran, you can tell this is right in line with some of the government crackdowns on protests in those countries as well, super tragic. By the 1980s, oil prices fell, which led to a severe economic crisis in Mexico. Inflation was sky high, and Mexico had a lot of debt so they had to restructure a lot of their economy.
However, it also led to a transition to more democracy and political reforms. And the PRI that had been dominant for so long started to have opposition candidates that got more traction. During the 1980s and 1990s, drug cartels started to grow in Mexico. Now, there are a lot of reasons why Mexico has sadly become a hotspot for drug cartels. And there's no way I could cover it all here. But essentially, Mexico is in a strategic location.
It's right between the United States, which is one of the largest markets for illicit drugs. And South America, where many countries have a great climate for growing drugs. So Mexico itself also has areas where drugs like marijuana and poppy, which is used for heroin, can be grown. And in the 1980s, the Guadalajara cartel, one of the first major Mexican drug cartels, was founded, involved in marijuana and heroin trafficking, later diversified into cocaine, worked with the Colombian cartels.
In the 1990s, the Guadalajara cartel splintered into several smaller groups, including the Sina Loa cartel, the Tijuana cartel, the Juarez cartel. The Sina Loa cartel was led by El Chapo, became one of the most powerful and notorious drug trafficking organizations in the world. In 1994, Mexico, the United States and Canada signed what's called NAFTA, the North American free trade agreement. This was aimed to create kind of a trilateral trade block.
The idea was to encourage more trade between these three nations, make for lower tariffs between them. However, the same exact year, a sudden devaluation of the peso led to a severe economic crisis. And it took years and years to overcome the effects of it. The drug cartels took advantage of the limited job opportunities in Mexico at the time, made an attractive option for some people.
And during the 1990s, also the Colombian cartels started to collapse, which gave the Mexican cartels the opportunity to take over some of the drug trafficking routes. And we'll talk more about them in a minute. Also, during this time, the late 1990s, the PRI is getting pushed back. And in the year 2000, Vicente Fox of a different party, the Pan Party, PAN, I should say, won the presidency, which ended the PRI's long rule.
And Fox promised all kinds of reforms, like working to end corruption, improve the economy, but his administration faced numerous challenges and lots of issues with drug related violence. By 2006, the next president initiated a military led war on drug cartels that unfortunately led to increased violence and a lot of civilian casualties. By 2012, the PRI returned to power. Again, lots of corruption scandals during that presidency. In 2018, Andres Manuel Lopez Obrador was elected.
He is still the president today. He promised to tackle corruption, reduce violence, address economic inequality. Currently, his tenure is marked by mixed results and some criticism, especially over the COVID-19 pandemic. Presidential elections will happen in Mexico in 2024. So next year. From a bird's-eye view standpoint, the issues that face Mexico today are largely due to crime, violence, economic inequality, and migrant and border issues. Let's talk briefly about each one.
Like I said, the drug cartels and organized crime in Mexico is still a big issue today in 2023. They're known for drugs muggling, extortion, human trafficking. This leads to violence and security and challenges for law enforcement and for civilians. Corruption within the police and government makes it easier for the drug cartels to operate. It's really not super uncommon for local police officers to accept bribes or for high ranking officials to get involved.
Standing up to the cartels basically means you have a target on your back as they'll target your family, your business, everything you hold dear. And Mexico also faces the issue of not enough resources and training for law enforcement agencies making it easier for cartels to take control.
Today, the most prominent drug cartels in Mexico include the Cinaloa, Halisco, Gulf Cartel, Losetas, each one operates in different areas of Mexico and has a strong hierarchical structure and are known for different things. Money laundering, kidnapping, human trafficking, arms smuggling. Many of them also operate internationally. The Mexican government with international cooperation has tried many different strategies to combat these cartels. There's been lots of different ways.
However, addressing the challenges is really complex and is an ongoing task. Another struggle that Mexico faces is its border. There is a lot of unrest in parts of Mexico as well as many countries in Central America where people are trying to get out. And if these migrants want to get to the United States, they have to travel through Mexico, which can be a very treacherous journey. Some just want to get into Mexico and stay there.
But either way, managing migration flows, ensuring human rights protections addressing border security challenges really complex issues for Mexico. Not only are these issues for Mexico, but also issues for the United States and Central American countries and the relations between them as well as the civilians who live there. These are really hot button issues that affect the lives of many people who want to flee the violence and unrest and seek better opportunities.
However, not everyone trying to come into Mexico for relief or leave Mexico for relief are innocent victims, which makes the issue again really thorny, complicated, and yet to be solved. Those who purchase illicit drugs in the United States and Mexico certainly are contributing to the problem. If drugs are purchased, they will find a way to get the drugs to where they are being purchased, right?
So drugs are not only bad for physical health, but bad for entire nations and the people living in them. Overall, Mexico has a very complicated history. It hasn't been a smooth road. It went from 300 years of being a Spanish colony to the Mexican War of Independence to gain autonomy from Spain to the Mexican-American War, where a lot of its land became part of the United States of America. Then instability trying to figure out its government. It had a period of a dictatorship.
Then the Mexican Revolution. Then it became a republic, had a constitution followed by many years of unsteady times, good times, economic growth, economic challenges, modernization, having a dominant party for 70 years, struggling with crime-related issues due to the rise of drug cartels. And during this time, Mexicans have been very resilient.
We've joined, they've joined NAFTA, worked on increasing indigenous influences in the culture, sharing its culture and food and music and literature with the world. It has this variety of different climates and regions with unique cultures and histories. And I have read many books on Mexico over the years and we'll be sharing some of them with my Patreon community.
I hope this episode has given us some good food for thought, even more I hope something sparked your interest and that you go digging a little to research for yourself, learn more about it. It's a beautiful, complicated, multifaceted place. Lots of challenges, lots of growth, also has a lot to offer. And that's all for today. I will be back in August. And in the meantime, let's go make the world a little wiser. Here's a new Video.