Hello, and welcome to Western SIV, episode four hundred and forty six Louis the Thirteenth. Now, don't let the title of the episode fool you. I'm actually going to talk about a variety of rising kingdom and nation states in this episode. Louis the Thirteenth, however, is the first monarch that we're going to discuss as we start to bring the other parts of Europe up to speed as the Thirty Years War has been raging. Now, as you may recall, back in sixteen ten, Henri the fourth Henry of Navarre
had won the protracted civil war and begun the Bourbon dynasty. Unfortunately, the quote unquote good King Henry was assassinated by a monk. His young son, Louis the thirteenth, barely a child, quite frankly, was thrust onto the throne. The reigns of power, however, clearly didn't go to this child king. Instead, they fell to his mother, Marie de Medici. She was a woman of Italian temperament, She was ambitious, She was related, of course, to Catherine de Medici, and her regency proved to be
a whirlwind of shifting alliances and treacherous intrigue. Powerful nobles accustomed to wielding influence, tended to feel uncomfortable under the period of her rule. The Duke of Sully, Henry the Fourth's trusted advisor, a man of stern integrity, found himself increasingly sidelined at court, his voice muted. Now foreign power, sensing weakness, started to circle. Chief among them, of course,
was Spain. Spain was the great rival of the Kingdom of France throughout the early modern period, and it saw an opportunity to exploit the internal divisions that were now gripping the kingdom. This happens typically anytime a child is on the throne. Amidst all these chaos, however, a young cleric that we've already talked about, Cardinal Richelieu, began to rise. Cardinal Richelieu was an extremely intelligent young man and a
young man of unwavering ambition. He was able to very quickly climb the ladder and become essentially the chief adviser to both Marie de Medici, but then also the young king Louis the thirteenth. As Louis the thirteenth matured, he began to assert his authority. He was a man who say somewhat reserved temperament, and it was often just simply overshadowed by some of the bigger personalities that surround him
at court. But he was a calm and capable leader, and he keenly understood the dangers which were currently besetting the kingdom. More and more throughout his reign, he turned to Cardinal Richelieu for council and to help him manage the affairs of state. Rieselieu, who quickly became the king's chief minister, embarked on a mission to restore order to
the kingdom and strengthen the crown. Remember, France had exited the sixteenth century in early seventeenth centuries, coming through a period of protracted civil war between the Catholic majority and the Huguenot minority. Richelieu acted decisively, ruthlessly, crushing rebellions both from the rebellious Huguenots and from powerful nobles who dared to challenge royal authorities. He was able to recapture the
city of La Rochelle. It was the last Hugo stronghold and came back under the control of the monarchy thanks to the iron will of Cardinal Richelieu. Now the thirty years War, of course, is raging during this time period and engulfed much of the continent. As we know, thirty years War also provided Richelieu with an opportunity. He skillfully maneuvered France into the Fray, not as a religious participant, but more as a pragmatic player on an increasingly complicated
European chessboard. His goal was clear. It had nothing to
do with Protestant or Catholic, Calvinist or Lutheran. He wanted to weaken the Habsburg dynasty, both in Spain and in Germany, because that was the eternal enemy of France, and quite frankly, as we know, he succeeded decisively in that goal, showing again that pragmatism in Europe had now by and large replaced religious z deal Now, by the time that Louis the thirteenth died in sixteen forty three, the French monarchy had been by and large transformed, and much of that
had to do with Cardinal Richelieu and then his successor I'll talk more about next time. Cardinal Mazarine critically the foundation of absolutism, an absolute monarchy, which is going to be a quarterstone of the balance of French monarchical history had now been laid. However, this period of consolidation came
at a high cost. France had emerged as a formidable power on the European stage, sure, but there had been a cost, a lot of human suffering and critically a massively drained treasury, and that's going to be an issue for France and quite frankly every early modern state going forward. And so the reign of Louis the thirteenth was a period of transition. It was a time of both triumph
and turmoil. It was an era that's going to shape the arc of France going forward, laid the groundwork for a lot of the successes that were to come under Louis the thirteenth successor, of course, the best known of all of our French monarchs, Louis the fourteenth, the son King, and will be getting to him in future episodes. But next, after a few messages, we're going to turn to Spain and catch up to see how that faction of the Habsburg monarchy had been functioning while the Thirty Years War
was raging. The death of Philip the Second in fifteen ninety eight marks the end of an era for Spain. Under Philip, Spain had risen to the apex of its global power, rolling a vast empire that spanned Europe, the Americas, and Asia. Yet his passing also revealed the fragility of the empire's foundations, burdened by financial strain, military over extension,
and emerging powerful rivals, chief among them France. The subsequent reigns of his successors, Philip the Third, who reigned from fifteen ninety eight to sixteen twenty one, then Philip the Fourth, who reigned from sixteen twenty one to sixteen sixty five, would be marked by increasingly failing attempts to maintain Spain's
control and dominance in Europe amid mounting challenges. Philip the Third's reign was characterized by a constant reliance on court favorites, most notably the Duke of Lerma, who tended to dominate the administration. Seeking to address Spain's increasingly financial state, which was poor to say least, Lerna implemented a policy of retrenchment. This included the Peace of London in sixteen oh four with England and a twelve years truce in sixteen oh
nine with the Dutch temporarily at least pausing costly conflicts. However, Spain's domestic policy was marred in sixteen oh nine by the expulsion of the Moriscos. These were Muslims who had been forcibly converted to Christianity. This caused immediate and significant economic dislocation, particularly in the regions of Valencia and Aragon,
where Mauriscos had played a vital role in agriculture. In sixteen twenty one, Philip the Fourth ascended the throne, bringing with him a renewed ambition for Spain to reclaim its dominance in Europe. His favorite, the Count Duke of Olivarees, became the driving force now behind Spanish policy. Olivares was a visionary reformer, advocating for what he called the Union of Arms, a plan to essentially centralize military contributions from
across Spain's diverse and vast territories. However, this policy did nothing but provoke resistance, particularly in Catalonia and Portugal, and would have long term consequences for Spanish unities. The renewal of hostilities at the Dutch in sixteen twenty one marked the beginning of the Eighty Years War phase. Despite initial successes, such as the capture of Breta in sixteen twenty five, the Dutch were simply too resistant. The war drained Spain's
resources and strained its overburdened treasury. As we know, Spain's involvement in the Thirty Years War, which began as a dynastic struggle within the Holy Roman Empire, further compounded these challenges. As a staunch defender of Catholicism, Spain supported the Austrian Habsburgs and intervened directly in the conflict, dispatching troops to aid its allies and protect its interest in the Rhineland
and beyond. The early years of the Thirty Years War saw Spanish forces achieved significant victories such as the Battle of White Mountain we talked about many episodes ago, and began the occupation of key territories in northern Germany. However, as we know, the tide began to turn in the sixteen thirties. France, under Cardinal Richelieu, entered the war in sixteen thirty five as an effort to curb Habsburg power. The Franco Spanish War ensued, opening a new front that
overstretched Spain's military and financial capabilities. At the same time, internal revolts erupted within the Spanish monarchy. The Catalan Revolt, which lasted from sixteen forty all the way to sixteen fifty nine, and the Portuguese Restoration War, which lasted from sixteen forty same year sixteen sixty eight, underscored the fragility of Olivarre's centralization efforts. Now, despite all of these setbacks
and challenges, Spain remained a formidable power. Its armies continued to fight valiantly across Europe, and its navy, though challenged by Dutch and English rivals, maintained a significant presence. Yet, by the Treaty of Westphalia in sixteen forty eight, Spain's decline as Europe's pre eminent power was undeniable. The treaty ended both the Thirty Years War and Spain's war with the Dutch, formally finally recognizing the independence of the Dutch Republic.
The law signified a profound shift in the European balance of power, with France now emerging as Spain's principal rival and the more dominant of the two. The period between Philip the Second's death and the Treaty of Westphalia encapsulates the complexities of Spain's imperial decline. Faced with the twin pressures of external conflicts and internal unrest, Spain's leaders struggled
to adapt to the changing geopolitical landscape. While the Empire's global reach and cultural achievements continued, its position as the dominant European power faded, giving way to the era of French ascendancy. Now. While there are reasons for Spain's overall decline remain complex, I think there are a few major points worth noting. Domestic policy was marred by the sixteen to oh nine expulsion of the Mariscos and caused significant
economic dislocation, particularly in the field of agriculture. Vulson made an already fragile Spanish economy even more wobbly. Then, of course, you have conflict. You have the Thirty Years War, coupled with the Catalan Revolt and the Portuguese Restoration War, which made it difficult for Spain to continue their centralization efforts and drained an already depleted treasury. Truly, by the year sixteen fifty, Spain's time and the sun had come to
an end. Up next, we check back in with southeastern Europe and the Ottomans, but that will be right after this. The period between fifteen fifty and sixteen fifty marked a really transformative century for the Autumncemans. Really, the empire reached its apex as a global power and frankly started its downward slope. The empire, ruled by a succession of sultans during this time, rappled with both monumental achievements and significant trials.
As we know, the mid sixteenth century was the period during which the Ottoman Empire was ruled by probably their greatest sultan, Suleiman the Magnificent. Though Suleiman died in fifteen sixty six, his policies and conquests continued to influence the Empire's fortunes well into the latter half of the century. By fifteen fifty, the Ottoman Empire controlled a vast swath of territory, stretching from the Balkans and Hungary in the west, to Iraq and the Arabian Peninsula in the east, and
from North Africa into the Black Sea. This dominance was bolstered by naval supremacy in the Mediterranean, as demonstrated in earlier victories like the capture of Rhodes back in fifteen twenty two, and their continuing presence in Algiers and Tripoli. Suleiman's immediate successors, Selim the Second and Marad the Third, inherited a powerful state, but like any empire, they faced
the challenge of maintaining its fast frontiers. Selim the Second, often disparaged in Ottoman sources for lack of military ambition, is notable for overseeing the Battle of Laponto in fifteen seventy one, a confrontation between the Ottoman fleet and a Christian coalition led by the Holy League in critically Spain. While the Ottomans suffered a significant naval defeat, they quickly reloaded and rebuilt their fleet, demonstrating resilience and continuing honestly
to dominate the eastern Mediterranean. During the later decade of the sixteenth century, the empire extended its reach further east into the Caucuses and maintained pressure on the Habsburgs in Central Europe. The Long Turkish War, which lasted from fifteen ninety three to sixteen oh six, was a drawn out conflict with the Habsburg monarchy and ultimately revealed the final
limits of Ottoman expansion. In Europe. Although the Treaty of Vladistok in sixteen oh six confirmed the Ottoman's control over much of Hungary, it marked a shift towards a more defensive posture for the Empire in European affairs. By sixteen hundred, the Ottoman Empire was no longer the unified juggernaut of earlier decades. Internal political struggles, financial instability, and the strain
of prolonged warfare began to take their toll. The dev Shermise system, which had supplied the empire with its elite janissary troops, began to show signs of inefficiency and corruption. Meanwhile, the central government increasingly relied on tax farming, leading to abuses that alienated rural populations and weakened state revenues. The reign of Ahmed the First from sixteen oh three to sixteen seventeen was emblematic of this transitional period. Ahmed sought
to stabilize the empire through diplomacy and administrative reforms. His decision to halt the policy of fratricide among princes and instead confine rival claimants in the cage cafes fundamentally changed Ottoman succession practices, though it also contributed to the rise of less experienced sultans in the future. During Ahmed's reign, the Empire continued to face challenges from Safavid Persia in
the east. The Treaty of Nashu Pasha temporarily ended hostilities in sixteen twelve, but underscored the struggle for dominance in the region, particularly in the Caucasus. The seventeenth century ushered in a series of crises that tested the resilience of the Ottoman state. The earlier decades were marked by political instability and the increasing influence of the janissaries, as well as pallas factions led by queen mothers and other court figures.
The reigns of Mustapha the First and Usman the Second, who combined ruled from sixteen seventeen to sixteen twenty two, were particularly tumultuous. Usman the Second, a reform minded ruler, sought to curtail the power of the janissaries, but as a result was ultimately overthrown and executed by the same
janissary corps in a coup. The sixteen twenties and sixteen thirties witnessed the Ottomans embroiled in The Ottoman Safavid War flasted from sixteen twenty three to sixteen thirty nine, a grueling conflict centered around what is today much of modern Iraq. The war ended with the Treaty of Zuhab in sixteen thirty nine, and that actually establishes today what are the modern borders between Iraq and Iran and reaffirmed Ottoman control
over Baghdad, solidifying its control on the region. Despite these external challenges, the Empire remained a formidable power. Under Saltan Marad four, who ruled from sixteen twenty three to sixteen forty, the Ottomans experienced a brief resurgence. Mirad, known for his autocratic rule and military campaigns, successfully quelled internal descent and personally led campaigns to retake Baghdad in sixteen thirty eight. His reign was also marked by efforts to curb corruption
and restore the authority of the sultanate. However, the final years of this period highlighted the deep seated structural issues facing the empire. The Little Ice Age, a period of climactic cooling up to agriculture and contributed to famines and rural unrest. Additionally, the growing dependence on foreign trade, coupled with inflation driven by the influx of New World silver,
destabilized the Ottoman economy Overall. Between fifteen fifty and sixteen fifty, the Ottoman Empire transitioned from a zenith of territorial and cultural power to an early modern state grappling with the realities of managing a vast, multi ethnic empire and in evolving global context. While the Ottomans remained a pre eminent power,
challenges from within and without increasingly demanded adaptation. The legacy of this century would be a more defensive and inward looking empire, laying the groundwork for the struggles and transformations of the centuries to follow up. Next, we cover the time of troubles in Russia right after this. As we know in fifteen eighty four, the death of Czar Ivan the Fourth, known to history as Ivan the Terrible and remember he earned that name, left the Russian state in
a precarious position. Ivan's ruthless consolidation of power had created a centralized but fragile autocracy. His purges and military campaigns had devastated the nobility and the broader population, leaving a power vacuum that his son and successor, Fyodor the First, was not very well equipped to fill Fyodor, a gentle and pious man, lacked the capacity to govern effectively. As a result, real power fell into the hands of his brother in law, chief adviser Boris Gudanov. Bordis Gutanov ruled
as regent and all but name during Fyodor's reign. When Fyodor died in fifteen ninety eight, without an heir, the centuries old Rurik dynasty came to an end. Gutanov managed to have himself elected Czar by the National Assembly, becoming the first non Rurkid ruler of Russia. Despite his initial popularity, his reign was plagued by disaster. In sixteen oh one, Russia was struck by a catastrophic famine caused by unusually cold summers. Part of the broader climactic anomaly known as
the Little Ice Age. Crops failed, leading to mass starvation, disease, and social unrest. The famine killed hundreds of thousands, further undermining Boris's authority. Dnov's attempts to maintain control were met with resistance from the boyars. Those are again the nobles
in Russia and peasants alike. His harsh policies and use of state force alienated many, while rumor circulated blaming him for the mysterious death of Ivan the Terrible's youngest son, Dmitri Ivanovitch, who had died as a child in fifteen ninety one under suspicious circumstances. Amid all this discontent, in sixteen oh four, a pretender to the throne emerged, claiming to be said deceased Dmitri. This figure, known to history as the first False Dmitri, gained backing from Poland and
other Catholic factions. Eager to exploit Russia's instability, he promised to restore Dmitri's rightful claim to the throne and convert Russia to Catholicism. With Polish mercenaries and the support of discontented Russians, the False Dmitri marched on Moscow. When Boris Gudenov suddenly died in sixteen oh four, his son in Airfiodor the Second, briefly inherited the throne, but was quickly
overthrown and murdered. The False Dmitri entered Moscow and was crowned Tzar, marking the first time that the pretender had successfully claimed the Russian throne. However, the new Tsar's rule quickly unraveled. His Polish allies and foreign Catholic advisors, alienated the Orthodox population, and his reliance on unorthodox practices further eroded his legitimacy. In sixteen o six, he was overthrown and killed in a coup led by the Boyar Balisi Shuski,
who proclaimed himself Czar Tzar Baliski. The fourth Shushki's reign from sixteen oh six to sixteen ten was no less tumultuous. His power was weak, and his rule was contested by another wave of impostors and rebels. Chief among them was the now second Faults Dmitri Because why would I have said there was a first if there wasn't a second? He emerged in southern Russia, rallying support among the Cossacks, peasants,
and disgruntled nobles. Meanwhile, Belissi faced the wrath of the Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth, which saw chaos in Russia as an opportunity to expand its influence. In sixteen oh nine, Poland formally intervened, laying siege to the city of Smolensk and eventually occupying Moscow in sixteen ten. The Poles then installed their own puppet ruler, Ladysaw of the Fourth, a Prince
of Poland, onto the Russian throne. This foreign occupation was deeply resented by the Russian population and the Russian Orthodox Church, fueling widespread uprisings. The Boyars, divided and weakened by years of infighting, were unable to mount a unified response. Then, by sixteen eleven, Russian resistance coalesced around a movement led by two really unlikely leaders, Kuzmon Mini, a merchant from Novgorod,
and Prince Dmitri Praski, a noble military commander. Together they raised what was in effect a volunteer army to liberate Moscow from Polish control. In sixteen twelve, their forces stormed into the Krenlin and expelled Polish garrisons. This victory, though hard won, did not immediately restore stability. In the wake of these events, another assembly was convened in sixteen thirteen
to restore order and select a Newzar. The assembly elected Michael Romanov, a young Boyar with ties to the former ruling Defy dynasty and a reputation untainted by the chaos of the previous decades, which are referred to in the history books, by the way, as the Time of Troubles. Now his election, I'm sure many of you recognized the last name marked the beginning of the Romanov dynasty, the Romanov dynasty which is going to rule Russia for over three hundred years until we get to World War One.
The Time of Troubles left a deep scar on Russian society. The period was marked by widespread suffering, a dramatic population decline due to Faminine War, and the erosion of central authority. However, it also highlighted the resilience of the Russian state and its people. The events of this era underscored the need for a strong, centralized monarchy to maintain order in such
a vast and diverse empire. The Romanovs, learning from the failures of their predecessors, gradually rebuilt the state, laying the groundwork for Russia's emergence as a major European power in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. And this, my friends, brings the rest of Europe up to date circa the year sixteen fifty, with the exception of England and the British Isles. Will be turning to that in a couple of episodes
time here. I have a large episode coming on that one. However, in the interim, what we're going to do now is actually shift across the Atlantic, because you see, throughout this time period there has been developing a whole new patchworks of civilizations across the Americas, and I think it's high time that we start to talk about them.