This Glass Was Made By Lightning

This episode is brought to you by Cancer Research UK. So when most people think of naked mole rats, Their unusual relationship to cancer probably isn't the first thing that comes to mind. But maybe it should be, because it is incredibly rare for them to develop cancer, which could be partly down to their unique immune system, or it might be the way that their cells respond to damage.

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is field notes. This is uh a kind of podcast expedition diary where uh Michael and I are gonna trade the curious objects or thoughts or sometimes feelings that are occupying our minds. And we'll answer the strange questions that are troubling yours. Mm-hmm. Because every week one of us is gonna bring sort of strange, spectacular object or story onto the show and together we're gonna see what kind of uncharted territory it takes us to.

But we want to hear your questions, your theories and your thought experiments too. So send them in and stay tuned to see where we end up. Yes, now later today, uh I'm gonna be showing off a very rare physical monument. Of something we only ever experience as a split second flash. Um that's my hook and tease for you, Michael. Ooh That's a good hook. I know. Any guesses so far? Uh, is it like how photons travel?

Well, I mean, y there's photons involved, but you gotta you've got to stay tuned for the second half if you uh if you i if you wanna find out more. Um but for this first half what we thought we'd do is we would dive into our mailbag. Um as ever, you can send us your questions, you can send us your own objects, your own thoughts and

Sometimes feelings. Um but our first question to say, uh Madav has got a question, this I think is one for you, Michael. Why do mirrors flip us horizontally but not vertically?

Yeah. Oh, that's a great question. I've done a whole bunch of videos and TikToks about mirrors. And it is weird. How come when I approach a mirror, my right hand is on the left side, and vice versa, but my head isn't where my feet should be? Why is it just doing this horizontally? And of course, the answer is it's not flipping you horizontally. It's flipping you inside out. Everything that you present to a mirror gets reflected right back. When you when you when you look at a like a letter R.

You're like, yeah, that looks normal. But then you turn it to the mirror. You were the one who flipped it horizontally. You turned it and it's just getting sent right back to you. But also if you lie down It still knows that your left hand and your right hand and where your feet are. Like if you make yourself horizontal, right? Then it starts then it suddenly flip flips vertical. Suddenly it makes your left hand, your right hand, but your head is not switched with your feet.

So it's like, how does it know? How does it know that to only ever flip what's horizontal to you? That's right. Yeah. If I turn the mirror. It continues this horizontal reversing. If I put myself upside down, it continues the horizontal reversing. Words are reversed. Right to left, they're not reversed vertically. They're not flipped over. And the answer is that the mirror isn't flipping anything. You are.

You see, all mirrors do is give back exactly what hits them. And when I say have some text on my notepad and it looks normal, and then I turn it to a mirror, I'm the one who just turned it. Now it's as though I'm looking through the paper, because that letter is hitting the mirror and it's coming back to me without being changed.

Because if you'd written on a piece of tracing paper and were holding it up and looking through the tracing paper, you would see exactly what is reflected back at you in the mirror. Th it would be it would be unchanged. the sort of the backside of the of the tracing paper and what you're seeing in the mirror. That's right. And so another way this has been explained is that mirrors actually Flip things inside out. All right. You can think of it this way. When you look in a mirror

The closest thing to the mirror becomes the closest thing to you in the mirror image. So if my nose is closest to the mirror because I'm facing it. Then that means that in my mirror reflection, the nose will be closer to me, and the back of my head is behind my nose. So I've been pushed literally my back and my front have been pushed through each other, seemingly, apparently, and now I'm looking at myself Squished inside out.

You know like those little suckers that you get that sort of are stable and then you can pop them inside out. Uh it's a bit like that, right? It's like the mirror is doing that to you as a human. It's sort of like grabbing you by the nose and like popping you inside out. That's right. So top and bottom stay on the same axis. Right and left stay on the same axis. It's just that now the front and the back are in different orientations relative to left and right. And so we think: well, if I

froze my mirror image and walked around to join it, to face in the same direction, it would be reversed. But no no no, you have reversed yourself by turning around to join it and faced the other way. I love that question. I I mean I in general I just really love like thinking very hard and long about things that s uh feel like they should be obvious and then getting really confused. Great question. Absolutely great question. Let's move on to a question from Brandon who asked.

How dense would a hamster have to be to become a black hole? Okay, I cannot tell you how much fun I had this afternoon doing the calculations for this. Um because the answer is actually quite surprising, I think.

Okay, so I I I uh I looked up the um the average weight of a hamster. I've gone for um if you're interested, a uh a chubby Syrian hamster, um 150 grams. That's uh that's their general weight. If you wanted to turn one of those into a black hole, um The problem is that you have to shrink it down to be so small that it's not just about squishing it. It's about obliterating the concept of space within it. Okay. So here is the uh here's the sort of breakdown, right?

The the the Sparz Child Radius, this is a a calculation, it's an equation that tells you how wide something needs to be before essentially it becomes a black hole, before it's it's it the the the density becomes so great that it that it becomes a black hole. So when you run the calculation for a hamster at 0.15 kilograms, um you work out that the Swartz child radius is two point two times ten to the minus twenty-eight meters, okay, which is

I'm gonna say it small. Um to put that into perspective, a proton is ten to the minus fifteen meters. Um no, so you've gotta squish all the hamster's mass. into a volume smaller than a protein Oh yeah. I mean like size of atoms, forget it, that's like gigantically vast in comparison to the size the SAMS has gotta get down. It's gotta be it's gotta be ten trillion times smaller than a single proton. Um, which if you wanna put that in perspective.

It's uh the hamster is to a proton at the moment, what a what a a grain of sand is to the entire earth, basically, right? So it's gonna be so small. So okay, then the consequence of what happens when you do that. Is uh is phenomenal. Oh, does it hurt the hamster? I don't think I think we've got a sort of honey, I shrunk the kids type.

Okay, I love it. I love it. I think the hamster's fine. Imagine that and the hamster is fine the whole time. It just like starts to realize, hey, my my gravitational force is getting stronger. I've I've become a black hole, dang it. Damn, damn it. Okay, I'm gonna tell you the hamster is fine. Uh spoiler alert, not everyone else is. Uh just bear with me for a second. Because here's the thing, right?

To the density, we know what the hamster weighs, isn't it's 150 grams with like fur and cheeks, but it's now squished into this subatomic atomic spec. Um, which means the density that's required is 3.3 times 10 to the 81 kilograms per meter cubed. Okay. People can check my calculations on this if you like. Um but just to visualize that that sort of crunch. Um water, a thousand kilograms per meter cube.

uh steel, eight thousand. Um the core of the sun, hundred and fifty thousand. Uh a neutron star, which is the most densest object in the entire universe, uh is ten to the seventeen kilograms per meter cubed. Our hamster, remember, ten to the eighty one. Okay, so basically it needs to be, I mean

Many, many, many, many, many gazillions denser than a neutron star for this to work. Well, sure. I mean we're trying to make a black hole. Like it's gotta be denser than any regular matter. Sure, but this is like even denser than that. Even denser than that. And and the problem is is that okay, according to to Hawking radiation, little black holes will evaporate over time. But this tiny little hamster black hole is gonna be so unstable that it will probably only last for about

Uh about ten to the minus twenty six seconds, right? So really I mean, it barely exists. Um but what what that means is that once it's down to this tiny size, it instantly converts its entire mass of uh, you know, 150 grams um back into pure energy, right? And it equals M C squared. Out. So what this means is the moment that you finish miniaturizing your hamster, it would detonate.

Um and the energy released would be about three point two megatons of T N T, which is about two hundred times more powerful than the atomic bomb dropped in Hiroshima. Yeah. So um I mean you can if you want to. Brandon, but I would say don't. Wow. If you turned your hamster into a black hole, you would create a nuclear bomb. Probably be at least the end of of the country you're in, if not if not wider. There'd be a nuclear winter that would uh that would wipe out much of the planet, I imagine.

Now this hamster during its tiny fraction of a second that it's a black hole, it will at least be free. It'll be able to leave its cage. Yeah. Look, I think when people try and say that that one small creature cannot make a difference, I think this is evidence to the contrary. It depends how you define can. Look, you I can imagine some like oppressed hamster saying, One of these days I will compress my mask.

into a size smaller than a proton, and then you'll all be sorry. You'll all be sorry. Hey, you know what? I think we've just found a new plot for a new Pixar film. Yeah. The hamster who became a black hole. Yeah. Copyright, the rest is science twenty twenty-six. To write. Okay. Speaking of shrinking objects down, I've got another question for you, Michael. This one's from Edward.

He asks, I've heard that if the earth was shrunk down to the size of a pool ball, it would be smoother than any other man made object. Is this true? I mean, first of all, wouldn't be enough wouldn't be small enough to be a black hole. No, it wouldn't. The Earth's Schwarzschild radius is funny enough, I actually l literally have it right here. Yeah, we'd had this in gravity, right? It'd be about like I think point eight centimeters.

Yeah, so if all of Earth's mass existed in this volume You could be so close to all that mass that even light couldn't escape. But if we're just shrinking it down to the size of a pool ball, I mean we're still talking about something dangerous, uh denser than a neutron star, but not quite able to capture light. I think light could be, you know, very bent by it.

But um here's to answer your question, Edward, it would not be particularly smooth. In fact, the earth squeezed down to the size of a pool ball would be about as rough as 320 grit sandpaper. So n the next time you're at a hardware store, find the 320 grit and feel that. That's what a giant would feel if they grasped Earth. Now the myth that the earth is smoother than a pool ball comes from a misreading of the

International Pool Association's rules. I don't know if that's the actual governing body, but they say a pool ball must be uh built with a diameter of two point two five inches, plus or minus zero point zero zero five inches. All right. So that's that's five thousandths of an inch. And people have taken that to mean that a pool ball can have craters and bumps that are five thousandths of an inch. And

At the scale of Earth, that would mean 28 kilometer high mountains and trenches. So obviously, the Earth is smoother than a pool ball. Rye. But that's not what the regulation means. The regulation isn't telling us about the texture, it's telling us about the spherical nature of the ball, how off, how oblate it can be. And so the um if you actually look at real pool balls, they have like sub-micron scratches on them for real. Like a really well-used.

quite scuffed up pool ball is gonna have these little tiny scratches that you can see under a microscope and they correspond to um bumps and crannies that are actually um much uh uh smaller than the Marianus Trench on Earth or Mount Everest would be at that scale. So Sorry to say the earth is not smoother than a pool ball. It is as smooth as 320 grit sandpaper, which I'm trying to think of things in real life that would feel that way. I think maybe like

Well where is where is three twenty on the spectrum? From like if you start off with uh w with, you know, the coarsest of all, where you're like just trying to get the surface down, what number's that? If you're trying to like remove material, you're using an extra coarse sandpaper that could be like a a twenty four, a thirty, a thirty six. These things are like hilarious. It's almost like a saw, a piece of paper that's a saw.

These are all macro grit sandpaper. You look at it and it looks like someone glued a bunch of rocks to some paper. But when you get into the the they call them microgrit sandpapers, the very fine ones are about 240 grit. Um but for Earth's texture we need extra fine. Okay. between 320 and 360. So those are gonna be um, you know, used for wood polishing, uh to to initiate polishing. The idea that

a pool ball can have these five thousandth sized pits and craters, that's describing one twenty grit, which is one of those like it's ver that's that'd be fine. That can't even remove varnish or paint on wood, it's so

But that's not Earth. All right, okay. So this is sort of somewhere in the middle. So I mean if you sort of run your finger along it, along this sandpaper, you're you're you know, it's not like your finger is sort of getting stuck as you're going. It's like you can run your finger across it. It's just you can also feel that it's not perfectly smooth. Yes. You would say, wow, this is not smooth. For sure. Right.'Cause the other one I've heard is that

Um is about the fingerprints. Have you heard this one? What's this one? That if you shrunk the earth down to the size of a pool ball and a giant held it in their hand. um, then the craters and peaks of their fingerprint would be greater. I I mean I was making some quite s strong assumptions about the uh the biological um surfaces of uh of this giant and the the fingertips of this giant, but the the craters in your fingerprint.

are greater than you see on Earth. Yes. This is the thing. These are the numbers that I think you might have wanted that that hu human fingers can feel objects as small as 13 nanometers. We are incredibly sensitive. to the like the vibrations caused by touching an object like that. Which means that if your finger was the size of the earth, you could touch the earth and feel the difference between a house and a car.

Our sense of touch is a m a miracle. It blows your mind. Wow. Yeah. That's incredible. I'm just sorry, I'm just feeling these scratches on my table just to see like the the You're right, you know, they're like really tiny little scratches. You can actually film it with the Yeah, and we might not be able to count the scratches, but we can tell between two different surfaces how they feel and that one's different than the other because of sub-microscopic uh texture difference.

So a house and a car on the earth to a giant whose finger was as big as the planet, it would feel different. They'd be like, oh, that's a parking lot. Oh, there's no buildings here. They would be able to tell. Oh, Buckingham Palace. This whole this whole Earth is smoother than a pool ball nonsense. Come on, let's grow up. Earth is is bumpy. It's it's its bumpiness deserves some credit.

Stop doing that, internet. Um okay, well we've got some bumpiness for you in the uh in the second half of this, because uh boy have I got a uh uh an object for you. Uh we'll be back right after this. This episode is brought to you by Cancer Research UK, who over the past 50 years have helped double.

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And we're back. Uh now, Michael, can you describe what I am holding in my hand? I'm it looks like a l short twig. Yes, it does. A very bumpy stick colored stick. I've got another one here. Oh, and y now you've just pulled up a shorter one. It looks like petrified wood, like a petrified twig, because it's sort of grayish brown and rough. It looks very organic. Again, it's it's only about as long as a pinky finger, slightly bumpy and grey and brown. It might be hollow.

You are right. It is. It's uh so I deliberately showed you this side because if I oh my god, my nails are so bad. We could not find it. I was going to say, Hannah, I cannot believe those nails. Uh you know. I know you're being sarcastic, but you you would not believe the amount of uh criticism that will come my way. I'm saying it so that they don't. I s I'm stealing their thunder. Males more like snails. I don't know, w does that make sense?

So right, you are absolutely right that it's like it's about the the length of a pinky finger, it's very nobly, it's brown, it doesn't look very interesting at all. You would walk past this lying on the ground and not notice it at all. But if I turn it round, this might give you a slightly better clue because On the other side you can see that it's hollow and inside it has this glassy texture. Oh, like a geode almost. Almost, almost. And it feels it feels Like glass. Oh yeah.

I can hear you banging it on your table and it sounds like a piece of fine porcelain. It does, indeed. Okay, here is uh here is my big reveal. What I am holding in my hand is fossilized lightning. Oh wow. Isn't that cool? So what happens is that lightning often, you know, millions of years ago, but you can uh I mean, all basically throughout the entire history of of the earth. Um lightning hits sand. Okay, can you see that one? This one's a bit clearer, I think. And it turns it to glass.

And it turns it to glass. Yes, because um what happens is I mean if you imagine having a bucket of sand and like shining a mega powerful laser in there, then then any sand that's touching the laser will just like instantly melt into goo. The goo then sort of like cools down into this this hollow tube of glass, but the very middle of it

doesn't just melt, it actually vaporizes. Where the where the um lightning hits the center of this, it will actually vaporize. So you have this this hollow tube, this hollow grass tube. Um and then what happens is that the sort of gas from the vaporized sand expands outwards, um, creating this this this basically this glass straw, right? Isn't that cool? Yeah, okay, right. So it's so hot in the middle It turns not into a liquid, into a goo, but into a gas. Yeah. Glass gas.

glass gas, exactly. And what is amazing about these things, okay, so so Darwin in particular, he was obsessed by these. They're called Fulgorites, by the way. Um, they're really cheap. I got these on eBay. They're like mm nine, ten quid each. I mean there's like there's loads of them. They're not like you you know you're not gonna find this on a walk in Epping Forest, you know? Like

You gotta go to the right part of the world to see a lot of these. But like across the world, there's a lot of them because there is a lot of lightning that's happening at any moment in time. Yeah. Um in fact, actually, there is a a really brilliant website which is called uh blitzortung.org, where you can see it's a live map of where lightning is striking across the world. Um it comes with sounds as well. So it plays a sound for every lightning strike.

that occurs on Earth. In in real time. In real time, exactly. And there's way more lightning going on than you would imagine. I mean, right now there's a little pocket going on in southern uh southern Europe. loads across Australia, a big band, um, essentially by the equator is where you get lots and lots of it. Almost

very rarely get lightning at the poles. Yeah. Um and one of the theories about that by the way is that it's cosmic rays that give the sort of potential to uh in order to to sort of trigger off a lightning strike where you get some some potential difference in clouds. Oh no kidding. Cosmic rays once again. Once again, those guys. Particles of mini hats. Yeah. So they like seed the process required for lightning. to happen.

So I think it's the other way around. So there there's this the the sort of main theory is about how in within clouds you have ice and you have sort of like sloppy hail, right? Like soft hail that interact with each other, that crash into each other because of the of the turbulence in clouds.

And then they uh they end up separating. They have different charges, but they end up separating'cause one's lighter than the other. So that's how you get the sort of the potential difference between l different layers of the clouds. Um, but there is this idea, this theory that that cosmic rays then then act as like the seed for that lightning to um to start, which I really like. Wow. All right. So w why did you pick these up? Just uh as decoration? Did you use them?

Hey, it's a glass drawer, Michael. What's uh what's what what's not to lie? Um, no, I I read about how how much Darwin liked them and I just wanted to see how easy it was to get hold of. Because they are really amazing that you would have something'cause it's essentially they're so rough and nobly around the outside because it's

That's where the sand is, right? The sand stuck to it. Yeah. Um, but on the inside, I mean it's a shame that I can't give this to you in person, but they are so smooth and glassy on the inside. It's like it's really it sort of feels otherworldly. It sort of feels like this is a freak moment that has that has created this. Yeah, well it was a freak moment. It's natural glass. It's accidental glass.

Have you ever used one as a straw? No, I was joking. I should do that. I mean it's not gonna hurt you. But you should, right? If they're only nine quid each. Yeah, exactly. I mean how how brittle are they? Could you carry it around as a reusable straw? Should I try and snap it? Well yes. I reckon you're good, shall I? For the purposes. For the purposes of this video, it's worth it. Ready? Okay, I'm gonna try stuff.

Whoa, that was easy. Yeah. That was brittle. That was. That was. Now now I've just either halved the price or doubled it. Yeah, you may have doubled it. Um the thing that's nice about these is that um because they've been being created across the whole history of the earth. Um, what they do is that uh as that glass uh sort of melts and then hardens, it traps these little air bubbles inside it. So there's all the way down here, there'll be all these little air bubbles.

And that's a sort of like a taste as it as it were, of the air at that moment in time whenever the the fulgurite happened. So um what scientists do is they take these, they work out how odd they are. and uh they, you know, allow them to sort of see what the atmosphere was like in the Sahara Desert, for example, you know, fifteen thousand years ago, see what kind of plants were there, see what kind of carbon isotopes were in the air.

um you really sort of get this this way to look backwards in time um using these little things. It's cool, isn't it? So by breaking that one, you just probably you may have released a few molecules of prehistoric air. I think this one's quite a new one to be honest.

Smells modern. Smells Victorian, maybe. You know, um there is this th Folgorite has this this quite terrifying cousin, which is uh called Trinitite. Yes, I was gonna say that is not naturally formed glass. It's glass that humans made by blowing up and testing nuclear weapons. Exactly. So when it when the first atomic bomb was was detonated in New Mexico, the Trinity test. um the heat from that melted the desert sand and it turned it green as well. It's this radioactive glass.

Um that one I did not buy on eBay. I uh That's harder to get because it doesn't just happen every time there's a lightning storm, or not every time, but it d it it ha you have to test a nuclear weapon around sand, and then you've got some Trinitite, which of course is named after the Trinity site where the first atomic uh full scale testing occurred.

Um but I think it's probably called Trinitite no matter where it forms now. I think it probably is, yeah. I think it probably is. You've got history of buying and uh buying radioactive objects um just for your own interest. I seem to remember you telling us about some radioactive lead at one point? Yeah, yeah. Well you can get radioactive lead isotopes just mail order. Um you could probably get'em off of Amazon today. My mom got me some radioactive lead for my bubble chamber when I was a kid.

And it was at the tip of a needle inside a little test tube and she made me keep it in the garage. But um we we also just bought some autnite, which is a uranium uh bearing mineral. My colleague, who lives in a different city, acquired a large amount of this mineral. And it came in a lead lined box.

with a big warning on it that says stay five meters away. So we found a suitable location and there's like warning labels and stuff, but it's still not really concentrated enough. We want to remove as much of the elements that aren't uranium as possible. Now We don't quite know how to

uh enrich the uranium. Yeah. But I might make some calls. I would say that's closely guarded state secrets, isn't it? Uranium and enrichment. Yeah. I mean we've looked into how to enrich uranium and the old centrifuge process Um I don't know how to make a good enough centrifuge. Um, and you've gotta they yeah, they don't really tell you exactly how to do it.

Today I think they use a lot of lasers. And in the future I think they'll do nothing. I think that we're we're developing ways to power nuclear power stations just with uranium ore that doesn't need to be processed and enriched. Um which is great. Which is really great. Well, I think that that's uh that's bringing us towards the end of this episode, but you can tune in next week to hear more about uh Michael's adventures into deeply troubling uranium enrichment.

Or find out whether he's been uh smuggled away by the FBI. Um, you know. I feel like uh maybe I shouldn't have said that because uh I I've ruined the surprise, but not for everybody. All right, well uh we'll be back on Tuesday um with uh with hopefully another episode as long as um as long as Michael remains a free man. So uh yeah, catch us then. I will be in a week. I'll see you guys then.