From Myth to Mission: The Inspiration Behind China’s Space Exploration
Today, we’ll embark on a journey to explore the rich tapestry of legends and myths surrounding the mythical Chinese goddess Chang’e who has served as inspiration for the names of China’s recent lunar and Martian probes.
China made history on May 3 with the launch of the Chang’e-6 spacecraft, marking the first-ever mission aimed at collecting and returning samples from the moon’s enigmatic far side. The launch, orchestrated by a Long March-5 rocket, took place from the Wenchang Space Launch Site situated on the coast of Hainan, China’s southern island province.
Approximately 37 minutes after liftoff, the Chang’e-6 spacecraft successfully detached from the rocket and entered its designated Earth-moon transfer orbit. According to the China National Space Administration, the orbit boasted a perigee altitude of 200 kilometers and an apogee altitude reaching about 380,000 kilometers.
Prior to Chang’e-6, China had undertaken several exploratory lunar missions, all of which bore the name of the mythical Chinese goddess Chang’e. These missions formed a crucial part of China’s lunar exploration program, reflecting the nation’s deep cultural reverence for the celestial realm.
There’s a good reason the probe used in the country’s lunar exploration project is named “Chang’e”, which carries a strong romantic touch among Chinese. Chang’e is a mythological figure from ancient China, whose story dates back to the earliest known Chinese texts including the Classic of Mountains and Seas and the Huainanzi, both of which were written during the Han dynasty, which existed from 206 BCE to 220 CE. And though the original stories were simple and rough, they have been embellished and interpreted over the centuries, resulting in multiple versions, some even contradictory. Nonetheless, they remain a fascinating window into ancient Chinese beliefs and mythology. So, let’s take a look at a few of the most widespread versions of the Chang’e story.
Probably the most popular as well as romantic version goes like this. In ancient times, Chang’e was the wife of Hou Yi, who was skilled in archery and possessed great strength. He was a great hero under the reign of Emperor Yao. At that time, there were a total of 10 suns in the sky, scorching the earth and causing crops to wither, leading to great suffering among the people. Emperor Yao sent Hou Yi to shoot down nine of the suns with his bow and arrows, leaving only one to shine upon the world, continuing to benefit humanity. Grateful for Yao and Hou Yi’s actions, the people elected Yao as their leader, hence he became known as Emperor Yao.
Hou Yi continued to serve under Emperor Yao, helping people overcome various hardships and earning their admiration. Because of his exceptional skill in archery, many people came to him to learn. Among them was a particularly skilled student named Pang Meng. Despite his proficiency in archery, Pang Meng had a wicked character and was deceitful. One day, he heard that Hou Yi had obtained an elixir from the Queen Mother of the West that could grant immortality and ascension to godhood. Intending to steal the elixir for himself, Pang Meng broke into Hou Yi’s home while he was away, ransacking the place in search of it.
As fate would have it, Hou Yi’s wife, Chang’e, was at home, but as she was a much weaker woman, she couldn’t deal with the villain Pang Meng. Seeing that Pang Meng was about to find the elixir, and in desperation to prevent it from falling into the wrong hands, Chang’e hastily grabbed the elixir and swallowed it down.
Almost immediately, her body became light as a feather, and she began to float. She drifted out a window, rose higher and higher into the sky, and eventually flew all the way to the moon where she remained. Though, she had become an immortal, she would forever reside on the moon separated from her husband, Hou Yi, never to reunite again. Only during the full moon could Hou Yi see a faint silhouette of Chang’e’s on the moon. Unable to be with his beloved, he would offer fruits, wine, and dishes to the moon to express his longing for Chang’e. This is said to be the origin of the Mid-Autumn Festival tradition of moon gazing.
This version of “Chang’e Flying to the Moon” is a poignant love story, a story of eternal separation, and a cautionary tale reminding people of life’s uncertainties, the dangers of deceitful individuals, and the importance of cherishing the present moment. In some versions of the legend, not only does Hou Yi lose the chance to ascend to immortality, but he also tragically dies at the hands of the villain, Pang Meng, adding even more tragic elements to the story.
The second version we’ll examine is more realistic and consequently, more tragic:
Again, Hou Yi shot down nine out of ten suns, which undoubtedly benefited the world below, but in doing so, he offended the heavenly court. The Jade Emperor punished him by condemning him to suffer among mortals. Some heavenly beings sympathized with Hou Yi, such as the Queen Mother of the West, who gave him a pill of immortality and ascension to become an immortal. In truth, it was a means for Hou Yi to escape his suffering when it became unbearable.
However, there was only one pill, and Hou Yi couldn’t bear to leave his wife Chang’e behind, so he never took it. But Chang’e wasn’t as brave and resilient as Hou Yi. Unable to endure the hardships of mortal life, one day when Hou Yi wasn’t paying attention, she quietly stole the pill and swallowed it, resulting in her flying alone to the moon. Though she gained immortality, she had unwittingly condemned herself to eternal solitary confinement. Even her home on the moon was named the “Palace of Cold Solitude.” Thus, the Tang Dynasty poet Li Shangyin penned the lines “Chang’e should regret stealing the elixir, her heart accompanied only by blue ocean and azure sky each night,” speculating that Chang’e must have regretted her actions deeply.
In fact, there’s an even more ruthless and cruel third version:
In this version, “Hell hath no fury like a woman scorned”, so out of spite towards her “cheating” husband, Chang’e flies up to the moon and never looks back, unable to be retrieved for thousands of years.
Legend has it that after Hou Yi became a hero by shooting down the nine extra suns, he became somewhat arrogant and conceited. One day, he happened to see the beautiful wife of the River God, Luoshen. Envious and consumed by desire, he shot an arrow to blind the River God and took Luoshen as his own.
Hou Yi’s infidelity and betrayal severely wounded Chang’e’s pride, and in a fit of anger she stole the immortality pill that had been gifted to Hou Yi by the Queen Mother of the West. After swallowing the pill, she flew up to the moon. It’s said that once on the moon, Chang’e felt some regret. Despite Hou Yi’s betrayal, he had shown her affection at times. Although her husband had been unfaithful, it was still better than the loneliness and desolation of the moon. And while there are elixirs for immortality and eternal youth, there’s no remedy for regret. Chang’e’s regret came too late; she couldn’t return to the mortal world, condemned to remain forever on the moon due to her impulsive and spiteful actions.
This “vengeful woman” version of “Chang’e Flying to the Moon” has transcended mere folklore and mythology, bearing the mark of literary masters who have skillfully crafted it, delving into the contradictions and darkness of the human psyche... Indeed, the source of this version is none other than the masterpiece Tian Wen by Qu Yuan, a literary giant of the Chu state during the Warring States period, which lasted from 475 BCE to 221 BCE. Because Tian Wen is composed mostly of questions, its interrogation of the divine and analysis of human nature are even more incisive. And now, more than two millennia later, Tianwen 1 is the name of China’s first Mars probe, which landed on Mars on May 15, 2021.
There’s another version that might blur the lines between ancient mythology and history, intertwining the mythological story of Hou Yi with another realistic figure from history also named Hou Yi. Unlike the mythical figure who shot down nine suns during the reign of Emperor Yao, the historical Hou Yi lived during the Xia Dynasty, which was around 2070 to 1600 BCE, which is also China’s earliest known dynasty. He played a significant role in Xia Dynasty history and nearly brought about its downfall.
After the death of the legendary flood-control hero Yu the Great, his son resorted to less honorable means to seize the throne, establishing a hereditary monarchy known as Jia Tianxia, or Family Controls All. Strictly speaking, during the Xia Dynasty, it wasn’t referred to as a “throne” but rather a “position of power,” and the ruler at the time was called the “Hou” instead of “Wang”, or “King”. The inclusion of “Hou” in the name of Hou Yi suggests that he once held such a position of leadership.
The hereditary monarchy system shares a common characteristic: the founding monarch or the first few generations may have experienced the hardships of establishing the dynasty and usually achieved significant accomplishments. However, by the third or fourth generation, things often change. They become indulgent, reveling in luxury, neglecting state affairs, and squandering their inheritance. Such was the case with Tai Kang, the son of Qi, who was the third ruler of the Xia Dynasty.
Once, Tai Kang had gone on a hunting expedition that lasted over 100 days without returning to the capital. Upon his return, he was intercepted by the military leader Yi and his army on the opposite bank of the river. From then on, Tai Kang never managed to return to his palace, an event recorded in history as “Tai Kang Losing the Nation.”
Yi didn’t immediately usurp the throne but instead controlled the government, manipulating Tai Kang’s younger brother and nephew as puppet rulers before exiling the Xia Dynasty’s chancellor and seizing power himself, becoming the sixth monarch of the Xia Dynasty – Hou Yi. This Hou Yi shares a common trait with the mythical Hou Yi in ancient legends, as both were skilled archers, a trait reflected in their names.
Similar to the mythical version, this Hou Yi also took a commoner as his disciple, namely Han Zhuo. Han Zhuo later killed Hou Yi, defeated the chancellor, and ultimately brought about the downfall of the Xia Dynasty. It wasn’t until Shao Kang, the posthumous son of the chancellor, grew up and with the help of surrounding tribes, overthrew the tyrannical Han Zhuo and restored the Xia Dynasty. This event, known as “Shao Kang Restoring the Nation,” occurred nearly a century after “Tai Kang Losing the Nation.”
The above account presents the “Hou Yi Overthrows the Xia Dynasty” narrative as a part of history, although the Xia Dynasty itself has not been archaeologically verified. Thus, these historical events documented only in literature remain in the realm of “legend.” However, once credible archaeological evidence is found to support these legends, they could potentially transition into “historical fact.” The transition from legend to fact has already occurred with the Shang Dynasty following the archaeological excavations at the Yin ruins, which are now widely accepted as historical fact. This leads people to believe that the Xia Dynasty may also become accepted as historical fact in the not-too-distant future.
Of course, one day the “Hou Yi Overthrows the Xia Dynasty” narrative may also become accepted as historical fact, but in this version, “Chang’e Flying to the Moon” will remain a “myth.” In this iteration, after witnessing her husband seizing control of the government, exiling the rightful ruler of Xia, and becoming a tyrannical usurper, Chang’e becomes utterly dismayed. She doesn’t want such a person to attain immortality and wreak havoc on the world, so she steals the immortality pill gifted by the Queen Mother of the West and flies to the moon, forever separating herself – and the effects of the magical pill – from her husband, an act that can easily be seen as “removing harm from the people.”
After examining several versions of “Chang’e Flies to the Moon,” we find that they are all tragedies. Even the first version, despite being a poignant love story, is a heart-wrenching tragedy. The subsequent versions are not only tragic but also reveal darker aspects of human nature. And even in the last version, which is closer to reality, the realms of the divine and the earthly become almost indistinguishable, blending into one another in a way that is difficult to separate.
In fact, the story of “Chang’e Flies to the Moon” in the earliest written records consisted of only a few dozen words. Even the relationship between Chang’e and Hou Yi in the earliest accounts is uncertain. But like language, mythology evolves and becomes richer with transmission, gradually taking on depth and acquiring different versions.
The artistic ideals of the East and the West should be mutually comprehensible. Tragedy tends to possess a longer-lasting artistic impact than comedy. Therefore, whether it’s Eastern mythology or Western Greek mythology, the highest artistic achievements often lie in tragedy. The Song Dynasty literary figure Su Shi summarized it most aptly in his poetry: “Life has its joys and sorrows, partings and reunions. The moon waxes and wanes, again and again in its unions. These truths have held since ancient times’ refrain. May we wish for enduring happiness that remains, and admire the moon together, though miles apart in our domains.”
Well, that’s the end of our podcast. Our theme music is by the famous film score composer Roc Chen. We want to thank our writer Song Yimin, translator Du Guodong, and copy editor Pu Ren. And thank you for listening. We hope you enjoyed it, and if you did, please tell a friend so they, too, can understand The Context.