Europe

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Europe covers just 2% of the surface of the Earth. The second smallest of the continents, but it's also one of the most dynamic. The people who've lived here over the past 50,000 years have frequently fought among themselves. warring over land and ideologies. But they've also made remarkable contributions to human in fields such as art, literature, mathematics, And science. Europeans, whether or not they would think of themselves as such is Change the world.

Key events and achievements in European history. will also try to get a sense of how the very concept of Europe has evolved. Relax. And let your mind drift as we explore the sleepy history of Europe.

Where to begin? We might start with the land mass itself. About 200 million years ago, the continent we now know as Europe was still part of the supercontinent, Pangaea. Over millions of years, as tectonic plates split, Angia gradually began to break apart. The northern Atlantic Ocean was formed, and much later, further tectonic movement led to the creation of European mountain ranges such as the Alps and the Pyrenees. Five million years ago, Europe, as we know it, had more or less taken shape.

No. You can probably imagine we have a lot to get through. Fast forward. Early human species lived in Europe about 1.8 million years ago, most likely having arrived from Africa. Anatomically modern humans, Homo sapiens, seem to have appeared in Europe around 50,000 years ago. A variety of cultures began to develop across the continent, and archaeological findings into how they lived. Tools, for instance. Sophisticated. Burial sites also provide evidence of rituals and beliefs. Group identity.

At some point, people began to create art. A famous example is the Venus of Willendorf. Figurine of a woman that was made of the 30,000 years ago, in what is now Austria. These archaeological discoveries show us that across the continent, unique Starting to evolve. There was more to life. survival. But according to many historians, the first major civilization didn't appear much later.

the Bronze Age. Around three thousand people were Civilization. based on the island of Crete, now part of Greece. Flourished for the first time. Two thousand years. The Minoans. when they built grand palaces such as Nosos, the ruins of which can still be visited today. They also traded extensively with people in neighbouring lands Egypt and Syria. The Minoan civilization gradually declined. But from around 1750 BCE, another important emerged nearby on mainland Greece.

sophisticated, with their impressive architecture and engineering. So we can see that in early European history, Greece stands out as And this brings us to a disclaimer of sorts. In this story, to keep things simple, we'll mainly be focusing on Western and Southern Europe. It was in this region that some of the most Important cultural movements emerged, movements that defined the development of Western civilization. Of course.

At around the time that the Mycenaeans were in Greece, many other cultures were thriving elsewhere. For example. The Mycenaeans traded goods with Bronze Age Nordic societies who lived in parts of northern Germany. Scandinavia. These people were skilled metal workers, crafting beautiful bronze tools, jewelry, and weapons. In Sweden, they also Intriguing hints of their daily lives and religious beliefs through hundreds of rock carvings. Many of these carvings depends on the same thing. Ships.

a predictable choice of subject, given how important they were for a seafaring community. Elsewhere in Europe, it was horses that were essential. From around the six. in the third centuries BCE. Eastern Europe. As an nomadic population, Name Expert Horseman. They developed advanced saddles and were famous for their skills in mounted archery. Over the centuries, Scythian tribes dominated the region. The area around Crimea, now part of Ukraine, became one of their most important power bases.

There's so much more we could say about the Scythians, not to mention the many other cultures living in Europe at the time. The Thracians, for instance, in modern day Bulgaria, or the Celtic Iron Age. region known as Laten, which was active in much of Western and Central Europe.

But now it's time to return to the place where things were really taking off. Greece. Ancient Greek civilization. was one of the most influential in history, leaving an unparalleled legacy. The period that historians refer to as classical antiquity began around the 8th century BCE. Time, more or less, that the epic poetry of Homer was present. The Iliad and the Odyssey. Civilization reached its peak in Athens. Second century B. About the time that the Roman Republic became a major power.

During this period, Greeks, such as Euclid, were making discoveries in geometry and laying the foundations of modern mathematics. Grease, Plato, and Aristotle. Well, I think that's the first time. Yeah. were developing the fields of astronomy and medicine. To this day, many doctors still swear aversion of the Hippocratic Oath, an oath of ethics that originates in an ancient Greek text. There was the art, architecture, theatre, the foundation of the Olympic Games, the world. The list goes on.

There's a reason why Greece, and Athens in particular, is considered the birthplace of Western civilization. This brings us to an interesting question. Why here? We've seen there was plenty going on in other parts of Europe. Why did Greece in particular produce so many remarkable people?

We mentioned earlier civilizations in the area, the Minoans and the Mycenaeans. The ancient Greeks would have taken inspiration from these In terms of academic knowledge, they were also influenced by other civilizations such as the Babylonians and Egyptians. The conquests of Alexander the Great in the four years of the first time. changes between different regions. But there was also something special.

Athens in particular. For example, some people in ancient A privileged minority, but They also lived in a society where knowledge and the world. debate were highly valued. This made it easier to share ideas and helped people to build on each other's work. If a genius like Socrates had been born in the same period, but in another part of Europe, he may not have become a famous philosopher. have to converge to create people like Socrates. influential. Classical Greek.

Another noteworthy Greek innovation is the name Europe itself. This may be a reference to Europa, a princess in Greek mythology. The name might be a combination. Greek words. along the lines of wide gazing. To Greek sailors, Interestingly, even though we now consider Greece part of Europe, to many early Greeks, Europe was It was the land to the north, a relatively uncivilized place.

In the words of the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle, the peoples inhabiting And those of Europe are full of spirit, but inferior with regard to And skill. are comparatively free, but lack civic organization and the ability to rule their neighbors.

After the Greeks came the Romans, the next big civilization. Yeah. At its peak, under the Emperor Trajan in the second century CE, the Roman Empire was Two million square miles. stretched across swathes of southern and western Europe, as well as parts of Africa and the Middle East. While the Empire would eventually fall. Yeah. Roman achievements include in plumbing and sanitation. as well as the foundation of major European cities such as London and Vienna.

Additionally, Roman law began to be for modern legal systems worldwide. we cannot forget, the Romans helped to transmit and preserve Greek learning. The Romans greatly admired the colour. And many other areas. To some extent, It's thanks to the Romans. Yeah. of astronomy survived to be passed on to the world. Generations. We also have the Romans to thank for another big development, one that would have an unprecedented impact on Europe. In the Middle East, a new religion had formed.

of Jesus Christ who called themselves Mr. Century CE, there were a small number of Christians living in Rome, most likely converts from the Jewish community. However, they remained a minority, one that was sometimes persecuted, until the fourth century when the Yeah. Christianity and legalize the religion. The first one. Christianity became the official state religion of the Roman Empire. This is one of the main factors that allowed the faith to spread. The Eastern Mediterranean.

Christianity became popular for many reasons. It promised salvation and offered community. And other Like Judaism, anyone could become a Christian. Christianity was enthusiastically promoted by missionaries who traveled along. Extensive road network. Of the Roman Empire. Over the following years and in the continue to spread across Europe. By the end of the fifth century, the Western Roman Empire had fallen. For most historians, this marks the beginning of the Middle Ages.

The Eastern Roman Empire, also known as the Byzantine Empire, would survive for another thousand years. We'll come back to that later.

In Europe, the early Middle Ages have also been known as the Dark Ages. This term, now seen as outdated, was first used by the Italian scholar Petrarch in the Yeah. To Petrarch, the early Middle Ages Dark. Compared to the radiance of classical antiquity, it seemed like a tiny Of cultural decline. It's true that once you're not going to be able to Yeah, yeah. the shadows of their former selves. Much of Western Europe had been taken over by Germanic kingdoms.

These rulers controlled large areas of territory, but sophisticated than Roman leaders. The Roman Empire had benefited from resources and bureaucracy, large-scale organizations. A bit later on in the Middle Ages, power became more localized. merged. It became the dominant political structure in parts of Europe, a rigid hierarchy based on land ownership, which made social mobility virtually impossible. People were very dependent on the tier above them, and serfs were the worst off.

peasant farmers were tied to the land they worked on and often exploited by their lords. At this point, it's worth taking a moment to pause and reflect. Throughout European history, the vast majority of the population have been peasants, rural laborers. They worked the land, providing food not just for themselves, Figures, monarchs, religious leaders, and so on, let's remember that their lives and achievements were made possible by the labor of ordinary people.

Without them, there would have been no Roman Empire, no Renaissance. But before we get to the Renaissance, Let's look at some other things that were going on during the Middle Ages. As we've mentioned, The medieval era has sometimes been viewed negatively and, unfairly, as a somewhat stagnant or even backward time. However, things certainly began to pick up as the years went on, While the glory days of Rome were over, the Republic of Venice rose in power and influence as a major trading centre.

Meanwhile, Paris became one of the largest. Yeah. By thirteen hundred it had a population of about two hundred thousand. Many towns and cities in Europe developed rich cultures. became centres of learning. Monasteries in particular were intellectual hubs, which brings us to another point. The role of the church and the the unstoppable rise of Christianity. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire. Christianity not only survived, but flourished.

It's spread across Europe, becoming the dominant religion and influencing all aspects of society. from politics to education. Christian scholars copied. Translated. Texts from ancient Greece and Rome. Hoping to preserve them. These scholars often incorporated their own faith based commentary. But the original texts and ideas survived. Another survivor was Latin, the language of the Romans. in the Middle Ages. primary language of education, administration, and the church.

Two. Many important space across Europe. Interesting example. After being ruled by the Romans, there was a period of Germanic immigration. these settlers became known as the Anglo Saxons. A number of power. Yeah. The Anglo Saxons converted. to Christianity. Over the following centuries, there was more migration from Scandinavia, plus a series of Viking invasions and Turbulent political situation. In ten sixty six, England was invaded on a large scale for the final time by the Normans.

After the initial upheaval, things stabilised to a certain extent, allowing England to develop a distinctive identity. From relatively early on, at a strong, centralized monarchy. But while the monarch was powerful, he didn't have absolute power. fifteen. The King of England saw the known as Magna Carta. It stated that no one was above the law, not even the king. and that people had a right to a fair trial. For the early thirteenth century, this was pretty revolutionary stuff.

Pero hay mucho más. about English history. For now we'll leave you with this observation. As an island nation with a relative Governance, at least compared to some other countries in Europe, England became somewhat unique. It began to develop a national identity early on, having been a unified state. Yeah. On the other hand, Yeah. In part. These differences explain why today Britain is seen as both European. and a nation slightly apart.

Elsewhere in Europe in the Middle Ages, power was fragmented and ancien rulers, kings, emperors, lords, and dukes. Some of these rulers became exceptionally powerful.

Charlemagne, a Frankish king who ruled in the eighth century. But by the High Middle Ages, around the eleventh and twelfth centuries, one of the most influential powers in Europe Was the papacy. It's remarkable to remark. on this transformation when we remember how the early Christians were a minority group. By the 11th century, Christianity was the main religion. The Pope was one of the most powerful men in all of Europe.

Although the papacy didn't have its own permanent army, it was able to recruit plenty of soldiers from across Europe in times of need. This explains how, between 1095 and 1291, the papacy was able to initiate a series of military campaigns known as The Crusades. The idea was for Christian soldiers to reclaim the Holy Land, including the city of Jerusalem, which was under Muslim rule. The first crusade was a success. Subsequent wars didn't go too well. What?

Crusaders certainly persevered, launching multiple campaigns over a period of 200 years. Yeah. action further in Europe. People were prepared to die for their beliefs. That being said, some crusaders were likely motivated by less spiritual motives, such as desire for wealth or glory. Wanderlust may have also been a factor. Back then, joining an army was a way to see the world. Between the eighth and fifteenth centuries. between Christians and Muslims on the Iberian Peninsula.

century onwards, much of Spain and Portugal was under Muslim rule. This territory was occupied by the Moors. in North Africa. Over the following centuries, the first time. by Christian armies to retake the territory. These military campaigns became known as the Reconquista or Reconquest. In 1492, the city of Granada was recaptured, ending Muslim rule in this part of Europe.

Although religion wasn't the only factor, Success of the Reconquista demonstrates just the and how powerful Christianity had become in Europe. Ever since the earliest days of European history, wars have been constantly fighting over land and power. What's interesting about the Middle Ages is that from this point on, religious motivation This may seem strange to us today, given that Christianity Peace.

But in medieval times, many Christians believed that violence could justified or even required to defend their faith. In ten ninety five, Pope Oban the Second suggested that war could be holy. Fighting could even have spiritual benefits. For some, there was no contradiction in being a follower of Christ, a man who preached peace and tolerance, while also taking part in wars and other violent acts. In the Middle Ages, Christianity helped to shape European identity.

People living in otherwise very different cultures, for example, Spain and Germany were to some extent united by their shared faith. For many, Europe meant Christendom. However, it Living in France during the Middle Ages would have identified much more strongly with their town or region. They wouldn't have thought of themselves as being European. Point in history, even national identity, the idea of being French, for instance. Secondary to regional ties.

We've mainly been focusing on Western Europe, but now it's time to be a very good thing. Make a quick look to the east. As we mentioned earlier, the Eastern Roman Empire or Byzantine Empire survived throughout the Middle Ages. For hundreds of years, it was the major power in Greece and the Balkans. Its capital was Constantinople, now Istanbul in Turkey. In fourteen fifty-three, in a dramatic turn of events, this city were captured by the Ottoman Turks.

The fall of Constantinople marks not just the end of the Byzantine Empire, but also historians, the end of the Middle Ages. Across Europe, change was on the horizon. Yeah. Huge, wide reaching impact. But in the short term, one of the most interesting consequences. scholars. When Constantinople was taken over by the Turks, Byzantine scholars fled the city. Many moved to Italy, bringing their manuscripts with them.

These scholars would contribute to the cultural movement that was already underway in Italy. The Renaissance. Naissance means rebirth. In the 14th to the 16th century, people in Western Europe were rediscovering classical antiquity and creating their own works in response. As a cultural movement, the remote once looked backwards to the glory of ancient Greece and Rome. New ground in art, architecture, literature, philosophy, politics, Science.

And exploration. The School of Athens by the Italian artist Raphael. This magnificent fresco. philosophers of the past surrounded by grand architecture. Raphael and other renowned Figures, the ancient Greeks are as well as As ever. While Christianity remained important throughout Europe, the Renaissance through the development of humanism. Take another Renaissance artwork and The Vitruvian Man by Leonardo da Vinci.

This drawing of a naked man represents a growing interest in anatomy and science and the belief of that the individual human was worthy of study. Although the Renaissance spread across Europe, it began to be in Italy. Often seen as the moon. Why here, in particular? Well, as always, there are many factors. Wealth, from trade, for instance. Patrons of the arts, like the men. In addition, we might draw a comparison to the first eighth century BCE. Florence.

Knowledgeable people were active in the city at around the same time, taking inspiration from one another. And let's keep in mind that at the time, Italy wasn't a unified country. It was made up. A bit like ancient Greece. This may have been a contributing factor in terms of Italy's cultural development. It led to more diversity and rivalry between states. The perfect conditions For progress. Renaissance curiosity and ambition also contributed to the Age of Discovery or Age of of exploration.

Which began in the late Fifteenth century. Many Europeans The seas, most notably the Μυστήφα Κολύμπας. This Italian explorer led Spanish expeditions across the world. The first time in recorded history. With the Americas. However, as a side note, it seems that the Vikings technically got there first, reaching North America in the Yeah. From the late fifteenth century onwards, the From Spain, Portugal, England, the New York.

France and other European countries travelled around the world, trading and establishing colonies. These journeys led to Exchanges. and economic growth. To give A few examples, Europeans brought smallpox to the Americas, wiping out much of the population. They also took over land by force. and sometimes killing the natives and destroying local cultures. The Age of Discovery had a mixed legacy, to say the least. A recurring theme in history Yeah.

that progress often comes at the expense of more vulnerable people.

Now, as if there wasn't enough going on, we also have the Reformation, which began in Germany in the early sixteenth century. Reformation refers to the attempt to reform. Theologians such as Martin Luther were very critical of the Church, and different Catholic practices. They believed one could be a very good thing. Christ and following the teachings of the Bible. The reformation of the first time. Protestantism. to paved the way for further divisions in Christianity.

Many believed that reform was much needed, given the state of the Catholic Church at the time. In many ways, the Reformation was revolutionary, challenging traditional authority and changing the that people had with their faith. And as with any kind of revolution, the Reformation also created huge amount of conflict. For centuries to come, the relationship between Catholics and Protestants in Europe would often be a hostile one.

We've seen how a concept of Europe has gradually been developing based Despite the divisions we've just mentioned, Christianity remained a major and a symbol of identity. Many people saw a clear distinction between Christian Europe and other civilizations. of Turks, who now ruled Constantinople, for instance. or the indigenous people of the Americas. Interestingly, it was around the sixteenth century that Europe became a closely defined. as distinct geographical entity.

Advances in cartography, map making, led to the creation of more accurate maps. fifteen seventy. Abraham Ortelius created a detailed map of Europe, which is remarkably similar to modern-day versions. At the time, maps would have been luxury items. The average person in Europe didn't have an average. Their home. And their knowledge of European geography would have been quite limited. Nonetheless, the existence of these kinds of maps shows how Europe was becoming more important.

clearly conceptualized. Seemingly distant and disparate regions, such as Spain and the Baltic lands, were recognized as belonging the same larger entity.

shifts in Europe. Progress and revolutions across multiple fields. As people began to re examine society, man's place in the world, and their relationship with religion. The scientific revolution of the day of saw significant development in mathematics and many scientific fields. Thanks to geniuses like Copernicus from Poland, Galileo, from Italy, and Isaac Newton from England, People gained a new understanding of the world.

After the scientific revolution came the Age of Enlightenment, which emerged in the Seventeenth century. Once again. was centered in Western Europe. Enlightenment thinkers were inspired by science and a rational approach. They questioned traditions and conventions, in some cases, advocating for separation between church. An important enlightenment principle is that of individual liberty. Over the years Push for freedom. As many to challenge religious authority.

Enlightenment thinkers believed Extraordinary things. in so many fields, it's little wonder. One of the most dramatic consequences of Enlightenment philosophy took place in France in the late eighteenth century. When we consider the French Revolution, we can see that many of the ingredients came from the Enlightenment. Principles of Indian. of liberty and ideas of social, political, and religious reform. That being said, the causes of the revolution were complex.

A financial crisis, widespread hunger and discontent, and resentment of the monarchy also. The French Revolution lasted for a decade. Shockwaves through Europe. It was an attack on the monarchy. and anyone who was perceived to be an enemy of the Revolution. In France, thousands of people went to the guillotine, which gained the nickname Razor. Societal change came at an enormous cost. But to some extent, the revolutionaries achieved their aims.

The French Revolution impacted not just France and not just Europe, but the world. According to many historians, the revolution had a significant influence on both modern democracy and nationalism.

Yeah. The Industrial Revolution began in Britain. sometime in the eighteenth century. Or as late as 1780. Historians' opinions differ. Yeah. was well underway. There were major technological advances in areas manufacturing and the railway, and the British economy was booming. The reasons why the indication in Britain rather than elsewhere in Europe are many and complex. One contributing factor was British. economy. of innovation. of about a century, industrialization transformed Britain.

Rapid urbanization had numerous consequences, including the seemingly unstoppable growth of London. By the end of the nineteenth century Point five million people lived in the capital. London was the largest city, not just in Europe, but the world. The Industrial Revolution also led to the expansion of the railway network. As countries and the continent became better connected, people in Europe could take advantage of new opportunities, from trade to tourism.

Not all the consequences of the Industrial Revolution were positive. Predictably, pollution increased, as did social inequality in some parts of Europe. Still, there's no denying the transformative effect Industrialization. In the nineteenth century, Western Europe underwent the most dramatic changes in its history. Additionally, as a result of many examples. Factors. advances in medicine. Population of Europe doubled. It was now home to around 400 million people.

In 1914, Europe was plunged into war. The trigger was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. There's no simple explanation for the causes of the First World War. The growth of nationalism imperialism, militarism, tension over alliances, the decline of the Ottoman Empire, and a changing balance of power in Europe. These are just so Factors that contributed to the outbreak of war. The conflict is known as the First World War because it went far beyond Europe.

On one side were the Allied powers, Including European countries such as France, kingdom, but also the On the other side were the central powers, including Germany and Austria-Hungary. The First World War ended with a victory for the Allied powers four years later in 1918. It's estimated that in total, more than twenty million people. lives. The First World War had a devastating impact on many countries, including Germany.

In the aftermath, according to the terms of the Versailles, Germany had to accept full responsibility for the damage caused by the war. In addition, they lost territory, were forced to downsize their military, and ordered to pay reparations, a sum equivalent to around$32 billion. Even outside of Germany, many believed these penalties. Too extreme. Ironically, although the aim was to such a terrible conflict from ever happening again, this punishment had an unintended consequence.

It contributed to the conditions that allowed the Nazis to rise to power. Many people in Germany saw Adolf Hitler as a strong. inspiring leader who would rescue their country. In 1939, Germany, now led by Hitler, invaded Poland. This was the beginning of the Second World War. Another major conflict that would drag on for six years. Once again, it involved countries from around the globe.

The Allies, including the United Kingdom, the United States, and the Soviet Union, fought against the Axis powers, Germany, Italy, and Japan. participants shows just how much the world had changed by the 20th century. Everything had become so complex and interconnected that a move by one country, Germany invading Poland, could trigger a global conflict. The Allies won in 1945, but the impact of the war would last for decades to come. The Second World War Conflict in history.

fifty million people died, and the majority were civilians.

In the aftermath of the war, There was much discussion about how to prevent anything like it from ever happening again. How to make Europe more united. The Council of Europe founded in nineteen forty nine with the aims of promoting democracy. Protecting human rights. In 1958, the body that later became the European Parliament convened for the first time in Strasbourg, France.

And in nineteen ninety three, following many years of discussions, negotiations, and treaties, the European Union was established. The European Union or EU currently unites twenty Member States. Other European countries, such as Albania and Serbia, may join in the future. While the United Kingdom, ever the outsider, voted to leave. Of course, it would be an oversimplification. The EU defines Europe, especially as not all European countries are members.

Nonetheless, by uniting so much with the of the continent both politically and economically. It's a powerful symbol. And while the EU is a relatively recent creation, it owes its in particolare The values of the Enlightenment. Yeah. In the preamble it refers to The cultural, religious, and humanist inheritance of Europe, from which have developed the universal values of the inviolable and inalienable rights. human person. freedom, democracy, equality, the rule of law.

The EU's motto, United in Diversity. Despite these efforts, divisions still exist in Europe. Sadly for some Europeans, war is not just history. Daily reality. Still, reflecting on Europe's extraordinary past, it seems that there's reason to be optimistic. It might be argued that these days, on the whole, Europe is more united, peaceful, and prosperous, than at any other time in history. thousands of years. has seen the rise and fall of great powers. The birth of new ideas and technologies.

and the gradual evolution of a European identity. Unpredictable. Just like the continent. Itself.