Will we ever Travel Faster than Light Speed?

I mean, it's true, but well, you know, as I sat there in the theater, my mind started wandering again. You know, not because it isn't a great movie. I really liked it, but I started thinking again about the idea of traveling at or beyond light speed. And it's one of the age old questions, you know, will anything ever travel beyond light speed? Well it's a good thing. We have a brilliant author here today is to answer some of the biggest questions about the universe, and only

one of them is about Star Wars. Yeah, but the book that he's written is called We Have No Idea. But you're right, we should give him a shot anyway. So let's dive in m he their podcast listeners, Welcome to Part Time Genius. I'm Will Pearson and as always I'm joined by my good friend man guest Tic and the man on the other side of the soundproof glass sporting an impressive coral saken hair part. That's our friend and producer Tristan McNeil, who knew his hair could even

part like that. So that's not what we're here to talk about, or is it maybe another episode? I don't think it's anyway. So I know you and I have recently been talking about the fact that over the past few years there have been all these big signs events that have just gotten so much attention and people have gotten really excited about. We had the discovery of the Higgs boson a few years ago. We had that big eclipse that you and I and our families all traveled

out to see. There was um quantum teleportation and all this x excitement and confusion surrounding it, and so much more. It's fun with events like these capture the world's attention. But but sometimes these events and the science around them can be very difficult to communicate. But today we've got to truly give the communicator and one of the co authors of a book called We Have No Idea Daniel Whites, and welcome to part Time Genius. Hello, and thank you

very much for having me on now. Daniel, this is a really interesting partnership for this book. You know, you're a particle physicist that you see Irvine doing a lot of your research over it cern and and you've partnered with a terrific cartoonist and Jorge cham And It's been a lot of fun getting to know you guys over the past couple of months. Now. Jorge also has a PhD and robotics. So I have to ask, how did you guys meet and then decide to take on a

project like We Have No Idea? Well, we met on Tinder first. Oh good, it's a great way to get going, you know, like most modern couples that we did meet on the internet. It was maybe ten years ago now, and I was thinking about other ways we could communicate physics to the general public because I felt like there's a lot of exciting questions we're asking with physics, but we're not always doing a great job of expressing that

excitement and the basic ideas to the general public. And I thought there was an opening there to communicate some of the stuff using cartoons. Actually, I saw a really awesome technical comic put up by Google when they put out their latest browser, the Chrome Browser, and Scott McCloud made a technical comic about the Chrome browser, and like, if you're not into writing browsers, you might not be

into reading comics about browsers. Because they had a great job of making this seem interesting, and I thought, wow, if they can make browser development sound fun, and maybe cartoons are a good way to show other things like physics. But I don't have any artistic skills myself, and so I couldn't draw these cartoons myself. Um, but of course I was aware of Jorge and his amazing work PhD comics. You know, he's some think of an Internet celebrity. In academia.

Everybody knows him, and his comics are really captured the restoration of research and academic life. Anyway, my wife suggested she's also an academic and she's a big fan of because she said, why don't you email or him and asked him to do it, And I thought, yeah, right, that's just like emailing Brad Pitt and asking about the movie that's that's pretty awesome. And the project that resulted from that a few years later, obviously is is we have no idea, So can you tell us a little

bit about the the idea behind this book. Yeah. I thought that there's a lot of great science communication that's happening, but most of it was focused on what we do know about the universe, all the amazing things that science has learned, and it's important to show people what we figured out. But I thought something was missing that. I felt like people had a misunderstanding of how much we

knew about the universe. So we thought, let's instead write a book showing people all the huge but very basic open questions to the universe, really simple stuff that we haven't yet figured out, stuff like how big is the universe? And how did it start? And how will it end? I thought there must be an appetite for people who are really interested in this basic stuff and excited to learn that we haven't yet figured it out. Because to me, ignorance is an opportunity. It's a possibility of things you

could discover in the future. And when I was a kid, I was always excited about that possibility of exploring the unknown. And figuring out something new, discovering that the world was different from the way we thought it might be and turned out to be completely uh counterintuitive, like the discoveries of quantum mechanics and relativity. I wanted to give people the sense that such discoveries discoveries, that that basic scale might still be ahead of us, that there are still

really big, basic questions that we haven't answered. So that was the idea behind writing this book. And do you tell us just a little bit about you know, I know you're a particle physicist, that's certain, but what does that mean exactly? And what are you doing in the lab? So it's certain we collide protons together. We take the protons and speed them up to nearly the speed of light, and then the particles inside the protons collide and turn

into little balls of energy. Temporarily, they lose their form of matter and turn into pure energy. And then that energy has this amazing feature which it can turn into any kind of particle in the universe as long as there's enough energy budget there. So if you've poured enough energy into your collisions, you can make any kind of particle there is, which means you can discover new kinds of matter even if you didn't know it existed. So that's sort of awesome. It's a it's a way to

explore the universe. And that's the thing that got me excited about particle physics is exploring what the universe has made out of How is it work at its smallest levels, what is the organizational principle for this whole ridiculous, beautiful universe we find ourselves in. And the fascinating thing about that is that it used to be the particle physics, which looks at the very very small told disconnected from cosmology, which looks at like the very big history of the

universe the future of the universe. These days, these two fields have kind of converged because we're asking a lot of similar questions. Like one of the big questions and cosmology is what is all the dark matter? Right? Where is all this missing invisible matter in the universe. Well, it's certain what we're trying to do is make dark matter.

We're trying to collide those particles together to make a new kind of matter, and we might produce dark matter in the laboratory, giving this insight into what's happening at the very very big scale. I love that there's so many fascinating things in that statement and also so many questions I have coming out of it. And I also just love that like it starts with such a simple idea, like the joy of crashing things together and creating all

these new things that it's stunning. But um, I know, Will general crushing things together is a good way to start the scientific experiment. Well. Will was asking at the beginning of the f So it about the last Jedi. You don't want to have said anyone with spoilers, but he talked about how the speed of light does come up in it, and is it possible or will it be possible for anything to travel faster than light speed? So I just saw that movie and I was thinking

about the same stuff when I was watching it. I thought they did it without spoilers. I thought they did a pretty good job of bringing some real physics into that situation. Um. But your question was will we ever travel faster than the speed of light? Um? Of all the things we don't know about the universe, this is one we're pretty sure we know that nothing can move through space faster than the speed of light. Now, I didn't answer your question directly, I changed it a little

bit so I could be more more definitive. That is, nothing can move through space faster than the speed of light, so an object flying through space can't ever go faster than lighthood. However, that's a really important copy moving through space because recently we discovered in the last few decades that space is a weird thing. Space can do things

that we didn't understand. If you think space is just like the emptiness in the universe, the backdrop on which everything happens, and then you need to get caught up with some modern physics, because space does really weird things

like thend and expand and ripple. So if your goal is not necessarily to move faster than light through space, but just to get somewhere fast, like you want to go from you know, your rebel base to wherever you need to go, and you want to not spend a million years getting there, then instead of moving through space fast from the speed of light, you might want to

just compress space itself. Right, so you can bring these two locations, which ostensibly are very very far apart, if you can bring them closer together by by shrinking space, by compressing space, then you can get there rapidly without going faster than the speed of light. And that's the

actual idea behind developing actual work drives. So while you can't move through space faster than the speed of light, we might actually technically be able to eventually construct warp drives that can get us to distant places faster than light traveling through normal space. That's just it's as simple as that. Really, that's all there is to it. I assume that we're pretty close to this whole space compression thing, like with the next five to ten years, we should

be able to do this. Is that right, Daniel? I would not invest in those companies, but you know there's a fascinating transition there, right. Anytime, if something is just

totally impossible, it's totally impossible. But now we've moved warp drives from totally impossible to completely impractical and very very very difficult, which means, yeah, in ten years it will probably just be an app on your iPhone, right because now we just handed it from physicists to engineers, and in current calculations, you know, the energy to run a warp drive, even go to like Alpha Centauri would require more energy than is contained in like the planet Jube,

all the massive planet Jupiter. Okay, so vast incredible quantities of energy we can't even imagine. However, you know, it's it's it's just become an efficiency problem. Now somebody can build a better one and build a more effective one. Right And of course, for your listeners, nobody's actually constructed any sort of functioning warp drive. But theoretically it's not impossible to compress space to travel places faster than light could um. And that's what I liked about in that movie.

You know, they don't just go places instantly in the last They don't just disappear from one place and appear somewhere else. They have to get there. And even though they're moving through hyperspace, right, there's still a speed they're moving through hyperspace and a maximum this limitation there. And so that's where the physics comes in, right, is in

providing plot points and the limitations. Well, I have a follow up question to that in terms of headlines from earlier this year that dealt with traveling through space, and I want to ask you about that. But before we do that, let's take a quick break. Welcome back to Part time Genius we're talking to Daniel Whites, and one of the co authors of We Have No Idea, this awesome book that talks about all of the things in the universe, not necessarily that we do know, but the

many big questions that we don't know. And we're putting Daniel on the spot today and asking him to answer every single big question about the universe that seems reasonable to me. Think, So what do you think? So? Yeah? So, So before the break, I mentioned that I had another question that related to headlines that we saw everywhere earlier

this year. There was a headline that said, first object teleported from Earth, and I have to be honest, Daniel, I struggled with the way the media was covering this event that happened, this quantum teleportation, and I wanted to see if you could talk to us a little bit about that and does it relate to what we were talking about earlier, this idea of you know, being able to travel through space at faster than the speed of light.

Can you just talk to us a little bit about this event and and how the media may have struggled a little bit to communicate what actually happened in that experiment. Yeah, I read those headlines, and I was pretty excited object teleported into space. I thought, Wow, we're gonna be beaming up to space stations in the next few years. Right, But you're right, the media totally failed to invade that accurately because no object was teleported into space. Um. Instead,

information was sent into space. And that's much less exciting because it's essentially just beaming a message. Right. So you can, we know already how to send information from one place to another. We have lots of techniques for that radio laser or some of these things moving the speed of light. Right. Um, this was more interesting because it's quantum teleportation. Right. That's a process by which quantum information like the state of an atom or a photon, can be transmitted exactly from

one location to another. Right. And it involves like entangling particles and using their quantum relationships to send that information. So it's a new way to send information. But it's not teleportation, right. It's not like your concept where something disappears and is reappeared somewhere else, resembled there um. And it's also does not move faster than the speed of light. A lot of people think quantum entanglement is a way around uh sending information is a way around the maximum

speedling for information. Unfortunately it's not. So this headline describes them, which would have been exciting if it was accurate, but instead it was a cool technical achievement. They had transmitted information using this new quantum technique further than anybody ever had, and they sent it out into space, which nobody had done before. But it doesn't break the speed limited the universe. It's still limited to the speed of light, and it

doesn't actually send anything anywhere than information. So it's sort of deflating, and I think it gets to a larger point of how this stuff happens, Like how do you do an interesting experiment and then some journalists writes it up as if it's something different, as if it's something

much more dramatic. You know. There's another example of that, just a couple of days ago, when the Pentagon released all of its footage from this UFO program, and of course they saw nothing there to indicate the presence of aliens on Earth. But I've been watching the news and

it's been everywhere. All this stuff has been covered as if we're now just discovered that the that the Pentagon has been talking to aliens and the headlines headlines or things like summary of human encounters with um, you know, a summary of human and counters of a third kind,

and it's all totally misleading click base. But I think that's one of the problems with science journalism these days, is that in the crowded media community to have to sort of scream for attention by touting even modest research achievements as incredible events in human history. So unfortunately, nothing was teleported into space. Otherwise I would be in line

because I'd like to get up there. I do wish we had talked to you about the whole alien thing, because we're we're actually recording this from a bunker right now, so it would have been useful information. Yeah, yeah, I wish you had quantum teleported that information to us before a bunker. I would expect you guys to be on a mountaintop with flags and come talk to us actually on the quantum teleportation before we move on to another topic.

I mean, it is one of those things, like you said, should have been a celebrated achievement because it is something that had been done in a way that had never been done before, and at that distance can you talk to us a little bit about what the implications are if we are speaking of out it accurately, of what this could mean for us. Well, it's an improved way

to send information. So quantum teleportation is just a copying of quantum information like the electron spin or photon state um that can be transmitted in principle exactly from one location to another. And the cool thing about that is just sending information without noise over that information loss right, And of course in a an actual practically built system there is always information loss because you can't isolate these

particles from their environment. But the hope is if we perfect this kind of technology, you could send information with less noise, with less information loss over longer distances. So it's always good to have several technologies being developed in order to send information. So this is another one that could could in principle in the future give us information transmission with less power and less less noise and less

data loss. So, Daniel, I know we've chat a little bit about dark matter in the in the past, and I just thought that conversation was so fascinating, But I want you to share some of that with our listeners, and it's not just something that's out there, but it's actually something that's all around us. Right. Can you talk

a little bit about that. Yeah, this is one of my favorite things about physics is when it reveals to us that the world we thought we lived in is actually totally different if you look at it using a new tool or a new perspective. And that's what we've discovered with dark matter. We discovered that most of the universe is not the kind of matter that you're familiar with, the kind of matter that makes up the chair you're sitting on, the air you're breathing, or the coffee you're sipping,

or stars or gases or planets or dust. That most of the universe, the matter in the universe is something else, something invisible, this thing called dark matter. And most people, if they hear about dark matter, they think, oh, maybe that's some weird kind of matter out there in space. But the thing about dark matter is that it's it has gravity, It attracts everything with mass to it, and it clusters it a lessons together, indeed, into these big blobs.

And those big blobs line up perfectly with where normal matter is, like galaxies and stars and gas and dust. Most of the dark matter and universe is distributed where the normal matter is because they attract each other gravitationally. And so what that means is that very likely we

are sitting in a soup of dark matter. Like can you imagine all the air in the room around you, Right, that's the matter that we understand, but it's invisible, and you're cool with being surrounded by invisible matter most of the time. But you didn't realize is that there's also five times as much matter in the form of dark matter that you weren't even aware of, and it's here with us. You hold out your hands and you close them together. You're enclosing some dark matter. You're holding dark

matter in your hands. Now, you can't interact with dark matter and call it dark, but really it should be called invisible or in transible, intransible. What's the word for something you can't touch. It should be called an untouched What matter sounds right? Unjudgable matter because you pass right through it, right, You can't feel it and it can't feel you. So, um, it's everywhere all around us. And

I think most people don't realize that. Every day when they go to school or go to work, or get in the car whatever they're moving through this invisible ocean of dark matter. Yeah, that's unbelievable to think about. So how do we know that it's there? Or how did astro physicists figure out that dark matter was was out there. It's a great story how dark matter was discovered. It's sort of a classic science story where somebody was just dotting the eyes and crossing the teas and saying, well,

I think we understand how this works. Let's just make sure and do some double checks. And then those double checks revealed that something was very, very wrong with our understanding of the universe. So the double check was looking at how galaxies rotate. Um. You know, galaxies are these big swarms of stars and galaxies are spinning. Now, if you imagine the galaxy spinning, you think of it like

a merry go round. Or you might wonder like, why are the stars not getting thrown out into intergalactic space? If you spin a merry go round and you put ping pong balls on it, those ping pong balls will fly out into space. So why are the stars not flying out into space? The answer is is gravity in the galaxy that's holding those stars, that keeping them from getting thrown out into the universe. So then you can

do something cool, which is cross check your numbers. You can say, if I know how fast the galaxy is spinning, then I can calculate how much gravity I need to hold the stars in place. But then I can add up all the stars and ask is there enough gravity to hold those stars in place? So you add up all the mass of the galaxy you can see, calculate the gravity from that, compare it to how fast things

are spinning. So they went they sent some grad student to double check these numbers and said, we think we understand this, just go double check. And the grad students when made this measurements decades ago, and it turns out it didn't work like at all. Of galaxies were spending way way too fast. There wasn't nearly enough gravity in these galaxies to hold the stars in So we didn't understand. Was there some gravity coming from some invisible sort of

stuff that we couldn't see. Why weren't the stars getting thrown out into space? Was there some other force to gravity work differently than we imagined. So there's something basically didn't understand, and people had to think big about the kind of ideas they could explain it, because this is not a small discrepancy. And one of my favorite things about dark matter is we still know very little about it.

And the name of the theory itself is sort of a description of the question, right, Like, we don't know why galaxies are spinning, we don't know what's what's giving us extra gravity, so we just come up with a theory dark meaning we can't see it, matter meaning it gives gravity. So it's like dark matter is the theory of some invisible gravity giving thing, right. It's just like, take the question what's the new invisible source of gravity that explains this rotation and answer it with will maybe

some invisible gravity giving thing, right? But instead, in physics you just tend to give it a fancy name, called it dark matter, because then it sounds more like an answer. But the truth is we don't really know very much about dark matter. We know that it's there, you've seen it because it causes these galaxies to rota, But we don't know what it is made out of, particles, is it made out of something else? What kind of particles

is it made out of? But we know very little about dark manner and I love hearing the way you guys talk about these sorts of discoveries or at least an understanding that this must be in existence. That you know, twenty thirty years ago, we had no idea to even question this kind of thing or even think about this kind of thing. We thought we had a general understanding

of how the universe was structured in some way. And then as we learn more and more, the main thing that we're doing is exposing all of the many things that we have no idea about. And I love the way you guys talk about that exactly, And to me, that's the excitement. You know, is that scientific come up and right the universe says you thought you understood something. You guys are such idiots like and you know we're doing the best we can. But we continue as humans

to make this mistake of over generalizing. We have a bunch of examples from our experience and we say, maybe everything works this way, right, We say, oh, life on Earth works this way, maybe everything in the universe operates under the same rules. But we continue to discover that our experience is parochial, that it's just one slice of the kind of physics you could have. You know, the life that we leave is sort of large on the scale of like tiny particles, and it's sort of slow

on the scale of astronomical objects. So you know, before Newton and before Einstein, you might have thought, oh, we have most of physics figured out, but then quantum mechanics and relativity show us that actually we didn't understand anything about the way the universe works at its lowest level.

And this is a continuous process, right, And so another point we want to make in this book is that huge fraction in the universe is not understood, which means not only that there are questions we've identified that we mean the answers to, like how did the universe begin? And what is the universe made out of? But there might be basic things that we think we understand that will be revealed to be wrong in two hundred years.

People might look back at our understanding of physics and laugh at us, right, and say, those guys understood nothing. That's the case. I mean that means that that you know, crazy revelations and new ways of looking at the universe are ahead of us, and I hope they happen in

my lifetime. Well, I I think one of the things that was also encouraging to me to hear was how you said there's so much room for philosophy in this not understanding the world right like that there's there's stuff you know, and then space to speculate and think and think big. I found that really poetic. Yeah. Well, one of the fun things about science is that it's so philosophically important, right. Um. I love when people talk about,

you know, is philosophy important? There is science the only useful thing when you know, you need philosophy even to understand why science is important. And um, there's this counterplay between science and philosophy. There are things that you can test, right, experiments we can do to measure things and understand things, and there are things we can't yet test. You know, we can't understand what's beyond the edge of our observable universe, right, Um,

there's the universe is a certain age. It's almost fourteen billion years old, and we can't see anything that's beyond a certain horizon because life just hasn't had time to get to us yet. So what's beyond their purely the realm of philosophy, because no science experiment can tell you it's just an invisible, impierceable veil beyond which we cannot see, which means there's lots of room for people to speculate, right and speculation wild ideas totally fun um. I think

there's a lot of room for that. But I also think it's important to draw a bright line between the science and the philosophy, because there are some things that we can test. So one of my favorite examples is the multiverse. You hear this idea a lot, maybe our universe it is part of a set of other universes which are all weird and different, and that's a fun idea, But in my view it falls squarely in the philosophy camp because we can never test it right. These other universes.

By construction, that being another universe means it's the place we can't interact with. You can't send a probe there to discover it, you can't see its effects on electrons, you can't do any sort of experiment to interact with that universe, which means you could never prove those other universes exist, which means it will forever be philosophy. I

don't say that in any sort of negative sense. Right, forever being philosophy means forever the speculation um by theorists and philosophers, which is wonderful, you know, smoking in appeals and have a lot of fun. It's important, I think, to draw that line to say here our ideas we have, but that's certainly not scientific proven. Yeah, I like some science communicators sometimes fuzz that line a little bit more

than I'm comfortable with. I like that. We recently did an episode on trash talking, and you just describe philosophers as smoking banana peals and having a lot of fun. I kind of like that. Maybe maybe we'll have them on to be like, hey, so what do you think about particle physicists? Now, I'm just kidding that that's terrific. Well, I have a couple of other big questions for you that you must answer before we let you go. But before we do that, why don't we take a quick break.

Welcome back to Part time Genius. Now we are talking to day you Whites and co author of We Have No Idea, this terrific, terrific book, and we have a couple of other big questions before we let him go. So, Daniel, I did want to talk a little bit more about some of your work at cern and specifically about the big discovery a few years ago of the Higgs boson, something that we all knew we were looking for, and until we found it, you know, obviously we couldn't get

too too excited about it. But can you talk a little bit about that process one helping us understand the significance of the Higgs boson, but two also just what it's like to be somewhere, you know, like where you're working, and when a discovery that you know you've been looking for for so long is finally there. What that must feel like. I think the discovery the Higgs boson is really an amazing feat in human intellectual history because it

proves the power of maths and patterns. You know, the origin of it is fifty years ago a bunch of theorists, including a guy named Higgs. We're looking at what you knew about particles, and it just couldn't really make sense of it. You know, the mathematics were just sort of ugly. They didn't understand how can all these particles fit together? And what why do some of these particles have mass and some of these particles don't have mass. It just

didn't really make sense of them it wasn't beautiful. And there's this interesting push in theoretical physics to say that the universe should be simple, and our theory of it should be beautiful. There should be some elegance, some symmetry to it, which is sort of fascinating, and I think a whole other topics we could explore. But this desire for simplicity and elegance and beauty pushed them to think, is there another way we could look at these particles?

And so this guy, Peter Higgs and several other people came up with this theory. They said, you know what if you add one more particle to this mix, and that particle has this special property I'll tell you about in the moment, then everything just clicks together and it's so much simpler and more beautiful. And so maybe this is the way the universe works. Since is an idea of something I have fifty years ago. And the incredible

thing is that he was right. You know, this particle does exist and it does do the things that he suspected that it did, and it suggests that you know, this desire for simplicity, this desire to see the universe and in an aesthetically simple and beautiful and elegant way might be a good way to look at things, right, that we the universe at its core is not a messy jumble of rules, but a simple set of lessons out of which emerge complex fascinating phenomenon, right, like particles

and ice cream and hamsters and podcasts and all that sort of stuff. You know. The idea that the universe can be explained from a few small set of rules is very to me attractive philosophically, right, and the game we're back into philosophy. And so the question is why did this particle make things simpler? What about this particle made our understanding of how the universe worked at its

smaller scale more simple, or more beautiful or more elegant. Well, the question they were trying to understand is why are some particles have this mass and other particles don't. For example, the photon photon flies through space that has no mass, It's just energy moving at the speed of light. Other particles like the z boson or the w boson, these other particles are very similar to the photon, very similar properties and play similar rules, but they're really heavy. They

have a lot of mass. So people who aren't trying to understand why is that um? What controls what has mass and what doesn't have mass? And before we answer that, you have to think about what is mass. If you think about a particle, you're probably thinking about a tiny, little spinning ball of stuff, right. And if you think about a particle that has mass, probably envisioning it has like a little serving of some stuff to it and that's what gives it mass. Right, But in our theory

that's not the case. In our theory, these particles are all point particles. They're all tiny dots in space with zero volume. So when we think about mass, actually we don't think of up stuff or it's no room in the particle for any stuff. It's not like something that has mass has a bigger serving of universe stuff or or more of its squeezed into a little space. They

all have the zero volume. So instead of thinking about mass as an amount of stuff you need to think of It's sort of the way you think about electric charge. It's just like a label we put on points in space, all right. You don't think about when you think about the electron. You don't think where is the negative charge of the electron? Is there room for the negative charge. Does it fit in there? Right? You just think, oh, electron has the negative charge. So you should think about

particles the same way. Some of them have this mass property, other ones don't. And that's the question that we're trying to answer, and that's where the Higgs does. The Higgs is this crazy idea. It says that maybe there's this field that fills the entire universe, literally, the whole universe filled with this new kind of field called the Higgs field, a field like in a electric field or a magnetic field, but now a new kind of field, a Higgs field.

And this field interacts with particles, and some particles it makes it harder for them to speed up and slow down, and other particles it ignores. So if the Higgs field interacts with your particle, like the W the z boson that it makes it hard for that particle to speed up and hard for it to slow down. That means it has inertia, which is another way of saying it has mass. So the idea is the mass of these particles comes from the way they interact with this new

crazy field. And photons just don't interact with that field. They fly right through without even noticing. That was the idea, and if this field existed, it explained why some particles got mass and some particles didn't get mass. And then the prediction of that field that says, if that field exists, then sometimes it would get excited, and in certain spots it would get excited enough to create out of the

vacuum this particle called the Higgs boson on. So the Higgs boson and the Higgs field are two different things, but one sort of proof of the existence of the other. So that's what we looked for at the Hadron Collider. We tried to create enough localized energy using our collider to create a Higgs boson so we could spot it, which would be proof of the existence of the Higgs field, which would explain why particles have mass. So what was that experience like as it was discovered. I'm sure there

was just a huge celebration. Uh, it was sort of like running a marathon. Honestly, it's such a long process. We've been looking for the Higgs for decades. When I started in particle physics in about it was the top priority for particle physics, and then we discovered it, you know, in two thousand and twelve, and along the way there were times we thought we might have hints of it, and times we thought we'll never see it, or you know, will we even have the power to discover it um,

But it sort of happened gradually. We started to see the hints, little bits of evidence here, a little bit to Theavean's there, started to build up, slowly, slowly, slowly, until eventually we crossed the official threshold for having enough data to convince ourselves and decide say, yes, we can say that we've discovered it. But it's sort of like when you get to mile twenty two of your marathon.

At that point you're pretty sure you're gonna finish, you just sort of got to stumble across the finish line. There's no like real moment there where we said, okay, we've discovered it. I mean, there was a public announcement, but by that point everybody inside the community had already been convinced that it was real. It was there, so it wasn't really like a It's not like some late night moment where the experiment concluded and we saw the results pop up on the screen and nature tells us

the answer. More of a slow accumulation of results. And the other thing I think a lot of people don't recognize is this was done by massive teams of people, or maybe ten tho people were involved intimately in this process. So again, it's not like you're maybe your romantic view of a physicist or you know, grad student late at night alone in the lab seeing the answer for the first time and having that experience of knowing something about

the universe that nobody else knows. Right, That's that's an exciting idea. It was like meetings and discussions and long conversations and more meetings and millions of power points slides. And you know, I don't mean to undermine the glamorous nature or particle physics or anything, but you asked what was it like? And you know it was a long slog. Yeah it is. It is funny because I think we do all imagine it is like, everybody, get in here. Jerry saw it. Jerry pushed the big red button boom

who discovered the Higgs boson? You know, the thing is that the Higgs is pretty rare. Even if you focus your particle beams and give them a lot of energy, you're producing one every few seconds. Whereas you have, you know, billions of collisions and seconds, so you have to sift through a lot of collisions, and then you have to do it for a long time to accumulate enough examples that you statistically can say we're pretty sure it exists.

So it's, uh, it's a long game. It's like, you know, you're putting a puzzle pieces together, and before you get the last piece in, you're pretty sure you knew what the puzzle looks like, but you know you still have to go through the work of putting all the finding those little edged pieces and filling in the sky and all those pieces. You know, I've heard you talk about those numbers of collisions and numbers of experiments that you have to do. When you say a lot, it's actually

it's pretty mind blowing. Can you talk about what that is when you're doing these experiments to find something that you know is pretty rare. What frequency of experiments are you doing? And then and and then how many of them? Right, So we're looking for rare stuff. Most of the time when you collide to protons together, not much happens to protons come out. Occasionally, you know, one in a million or one in a billion times, something different will happen.

So if you want to see a lot of examples of the rare stuff, you've got to sift through a huge number of examples of the boring stuff. So that's why we do as many collisions as we can, so we do it every twenty five nanoseconds. So we have these huge detectors at certain which are focused around this collision points, and then the accelerator runs through the heart of the detector and it delivers two beams which cross right at that collision point. And the beams are not

like let's shoot one particle at one other particle. You shoot like a bunch of particles like ten to the thirteen protons at another bunch, tend of tending the thirteen protons and hope to get some collisions. And then you have these bunches staggered through your accelerator. Accelerators a big circle. So you imagine all these little bunches zooming through the accelerator in perfect coincidence. They overlap right at these collision points,

and you get these collisions every twenty five nanoseconds. And every time there's a collision, we take this massive digital picture and then we had this enormous fire hose the data that pours out of the detector, and we have to somehow try to capture that and analyze it and simplify and reduce it so that we can boil it all down to answer an actual physics question like does this particle exist? To me, that's one of the fun parts.

I'm sort of a statistics and data processing, machine learning kind of guy, data science, and so for me, it's a really fun puzzles how to drink from this massive fire hose of information and answer very high level questions about the universe. That's pretty amazing. So so Mega, we've gotten a chance to talk about traveling at light speed, quantum teleportation, the Higgs boson. I don't know if achieve it.

I still have a thousand more questions I could ask. Yeah, I'm pretty sure we're gonna have to have you back on Daniel sometime. But I do hope that all of our listeners will check out your awesome book that you and Jorge have worked on together. We have no idea, but Daniel, thanks so much for joining us on parts. I'm genius. Thank you very much a lot of fun guys and I'd love to be back anytime every Thanks

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