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of treasure. Since the mid twentieth century, these exquisite gold and silver pieces have been coming to light, revealing unexpected traits of this ancient peopil. This article by Hangel Carlos Perez Aguero. For the longest time, little was known about the ancient Thracians, a group of highly diverse tribes of Indo European origin. At the beginning of the fourth millennium b c. They settled in what is today European Turkey, Eastern Greece, and Bulgaria. At the art of the Middle Ages,

Slavic migrants joined the mix. Thracians left behind few of their own written records. Most documentation comes from the ancient Greeks, who primarily portrayed the Thracians as barbarians. They appear, for example, several times in Homer's Iliad as allies of Troy. Later in the tale, the Thracian king Rhesus makes an appearance. In the fifth century b c. Write writers Herodotus, Thucydides, and Xenophon described them as warriors and mercenaries in their accounts,

usually depicted in battle attire. The Thracians also are believed to appear on Athenian made red figure ceramics. Several relatively recent archaeological discoveries have greatly expanded what is known about the Thracians. Their monumental city of Suthopolis was uncovered in nineteen forty eight during the construction of a reservoir near

the town of Kazanlach in central Bulgaria. Built between three two five and three one, the fortified city served as the capital of the Odrysian Kingdom of Thrace and was the personal residence of King Suthis. It proved the Thracians did in fact establish lasting political organizations. Additional stunning fines were uncovered between nineteen forty eight and nineteen eighty five. These different hordes of silver and gold objects were named

for the areas where they were found. They date back mainly to the Classical period fifth to fourth centuries b C and to the beginning of the Hellenistic period third century BC, although some date from both earlier and later periods. One of the most recent discoveries came in two thousand four. Archaeologists excavating the Svititsana burial mound in Schipka, central Bulgaria uncovered a solid gold funerary mask weighing over a pound and a half. They also found bronze armor, weapons, silverware,

and Greek sramic from the fifth century BC. Aside from the immense monetary value of the objects, these discoveries provided ground bak breaking insights into Thracian society. Thracians enjoyed a fairly advanced culture, noted for its exquisite artisans, a rich heritage of myths and beliefs, and a developed economy based

on crafts, agriculture, and trade. In nineteen forty nine, three brothers digging for clay to make bricks at a tile factory near the city of Panajerishta in northern a southern Bulgaria, unearthed nine perfectly preserved solid gold containers weighing over thirteen pounds in total, they had accidentally discovered what would become

known as the Panajerishta. Treasure. Pieces included a double handled anphra, three small jugs for wine with disc shaped mouths called ulpas, a shala bowl probably used to make libations for the divinities, called a fiale, and four ceremonial drinking vessels shaped like animal horns called rytons. Zoomorphic or mythological motifs typical of the Greek figurative repertoire, including Dionysius of Paolo and Artemis, decorate the pieces. There thought to have been a table

service for a ceremonial symposium. The vessels date from the end of the fourth or beginning of the third century BC. Some experts associate them with King Suthus the Third, who served who lived at that time, although the evidence is not conclusive. The only inscriptions visible on the vessels mentioned the Greek polis of Lampsacus, located on the southern coast of the Hellespontus, now known as Dardenell's. They suggest that

the pieces were cast in the workshops of that city. However, it seems likely that the gold itself came from the substantial gold deposits on Mount Pangaeon, located in the southern Thracian territory near Biegean coast Bivoro Treasure. In nineteen seventy four, while plowing near the town of Bavoro Berovo in central North Bulgaria near the Danube, agricultural workers unearthed another Thracian treasure.

This horde consisted of five silver vessels with details applied in gold, three rytons, an ovoid opa and a wide bowl. Restoration work brought back the Borrovo treasures. Dazzling appearance and decorations of grif Greek mythological iconography were revealed. Other traits, meanwhile, showed the influence of the Great Eastern Empire of Archimedid Persia, into which Darius, the first King of Persia between five twenty two and forty eighty six BC, had re subjugated Thrace.

One inscription mentions the king Cortus the First, who lived in the first half of the fourth century BC and ruled the ancient threeistion Odrisian state. While the treasure may have been his, it could also have been a diplomatic gift presented to another leader Rogozan Treasure. In the winter of nineteen eighty five, a local from the village of Rogozin in northwestern Bulgaria was working in his orchard when he came across the first piece of another huge collection

of Thracian treasure. The Rogozan Treasure is the largest of the Thracian hordes found so far, and is one of the largest in all of European antiquity. It consists of one hundred and eight phili, forty five ole pays and three goblets with embrasse embossed figurative decoration, mostly silver with some gold additions. In total, the pieces weigh over forty

four pounds. It striking that the weight of some pieces corresponds exactly to both Macedonian and Persian units of measure, which suggests that the pieces could have been produced with the intention of using them as payments in metal. There are a notable variety of styles and designed evolution in this hoard, suggesting the pieces were made and collected at

different times. The names of Thrician kings from various periods are engraved on the vessels, which suggests the treasure was added to during the fifth and fourth centuries b C. Experts believe the collection could be the dynastic trousseau of a wealthy family, accumulated by several generations over a hundred fifty years or more. For some unknown reason, the treasure was buried by its owners and never recovered. It stayed safely stored under ground until its discovery at the end

of the last century. Other hordes have been discovered, including the fourth century b C. Leu Covit Treasure nineteen fifty three, whose silver objects include equestrian scenes such as two horsemen chasing lions, perhaps representing the glorification of royal power. The let Nitze Treasure nineteen sixty three included twenty two gold

and silver gilt appocades that decorate horse trappings. They were adorned with scenes that depict the idea of a hero, shedding light on the mythological beliefs of the ancient Thracians. A fascinating aspect of the Thracian treasure hoardes is that, unlike most of the other discoveries found in Bulgaria, they are not related to one specific archaeological site. Specialists believe they were deliberately hidden by the Thracians themselves in a

variety of locations far removed from settled site. Experts have come up with various theories as to why this might be. Some believe the vessels are ex votos offered by the Thracians to gods or spirits associated with the earth or the underworld. There are several examples in antiquity of this being done after a ritual, perhaps a symposium. Other researchers suggest the pieces were buried in an attempt to keep them safe from an unknown threat from local thieves to

outside invaders. There are many examples from other cultures of bearing valuables to protect them, perhaps the most plausible explanation given the great worth of the pieces, mysterious makers. Clearly skillful metallurgists crafted the Thracian treasures, the question remains, who were they. The iconography of the Thracian treasures closely resembles that of classical Greek art. It's likely the creators of these pieces was inspired by Hellenic fireclay methods. Other influences,

for example, Persian, are present in the fine craftsmanship. The depiction of animals is similar to that of the nomadic steppe people of the Scythians and a blend of Near Eastern and Egyptian features similar to those found in Phrygian art from Western Anatolia is also evident. So did the Thracians produce them or did someone else. There is evidence that local metallurgical traditions existed in Thrace from at least the Copper Age, but the style of that work is

different from that of the treasures. Some experts believe the treasures must have been imported from Greece, Persia, or elsewhere. Others argue they were locally produced, but based on foreign models destined to provide the Thracian kings with prestigious goods

in keeping with the fashion of the time. Whatever the truth is, the existence of these treasures demonstrates that Thracian society was far more complex than ancient Greek sources suggest mingling ancient treasures, the Thracians left behind almost no written texts, and the inscriptions that have been found are impossible to read, as the Thracian language has not yet been deciphered. Instead, the images that decorate their hidden treasures and their grave

goods give the best clues to their culture. These images indicate that at least from classical times, syncretism was occurring between Thracian and Hellenistic traditions. For example, the physiognomy of some Greek gods and heroes, such as Dionysus and Heracles, is evident in the representations of some Thracian divinities. The Thracians, however,

were not passive recipients of Helenek Helenek culture. They exported their divinities too, such as Bendis, a goddess of the hunt, who was worshiped in Attica and assimilated with the Greek goddess Artemis local spin on Greek traditions. The male social gatherings known as symposia became popular wherever the Greeks settled.

The Etruscans, Iberians, Romans, and Thracians who came into contact with Greek colonies tended to adopt the tableware used at symposia, the large crater from mixing wine with water, the jugs for serving it, and vessels for drinking it. This tableware, however, often was adapted to local preferences. The crater, for example, was used in some cultures as an urn in which to deposit the ashes of the deceased, something unthinkable for

the Hellenes. Thracian Kingdom. The Thracian tribe settled in a territory that stretched along the shores of the Black Sea, the Sea of Marmara, and the Aegean. In the fifth and fourth centuries BC, the Odrysians establish a vast kingdom that lasted until the rule of Alexander the Great, while numerous Greek colonies prospered on the coast. Four ninety BC, after the Persians withdraw the Odrisian king terries, the first unites the Thracian tribes living between the Danube River and

the Rhodope Mountains three twenty five to three fifteen BC. Suthis, the third king of the Odrisians, builds a city called Southopolis and makes it his capital, the only known Thracian capital. Its ruins are now beneath a reservoir. Eight forty six. After the Roman emperor Claudius and his army conquered Thrace in eighty forty six, the entirety of the Athracian territory

becomes a new Roman province. Next jewel of teenach Tetlan Templo mayor by Isabel Bueno, rising over the Aztec capital was once an imposing pyramid dedicated to two gods, Plata and Zakopochli. Uncovered in nineteen seventy eight, The remains of Templo Mayor have revealed the shocking rituals used to appease them.

For centuries, archaeologists searched in vain for Templo Mayor, which they knew existed somewhere beneath modern day Mexico City, once rising some one hundred sixty feet above the Aztec or Mexica, as the Aztec referred to themselves, ceremonial center of Tinachtetlan, the ancient campel of the Aztec Empire. The pyramid served as the religious focal point and some say the center

of the Aztec universe. But then Hernan Cortes, head of a joint force of Spanish troops and hundreds of thousands of indigenous allies, conquered the city in fifteen twenty one, badly damaging the pyramid. Over time, it gradually disappeared. Maps and chronicles indicated that Templo Mayor lay beneath Mexico city Metropolitan Cathedral. Once in a while, when work was carried out in the city's subsoil, objects related to Templo Mayor

would appear. In seventeen ninety, a large statue of the goddess Kotli Kue and a twenty four ton monolith called the Sunstone or Aztec Calendar were found. In nineteen fourteen, an archaeologists unearthed more remains that he linked to Templo Mayor. A breakthrough came in nineteen seventy eight when, in the course of some underground cabling work, electricity company workers made the chance discovery of an eleven foot wide monolith depicting

Coyote bloch Siqui. In Aztec mythology, she is the goddess of the Moon and sister of Huitzakopochli, the sun, to whom the Templo Mayor was dedicated. Shockingly, the goddess was portrayed as decapitated and dismembered. Archaeologists were riveted by the fine and wadded to know more. An excavation team, overseen

by archaeologists Eduardo Matos Motezuma, was immediately launched. What emerged from these diggings was the Templo Mayor, huge temple pyramid that had served as the sacred center of the Aztec Empire, writes archaeologist Michael E. Smith in the Aztecs. Over the past forty five years. The team's painstaking work has brought to light some of the most breathtaking Aztec artifacts ever found, and with them came startling insights into major aspects of

Aztec religion, life, and society. The original Templa Mayor was a simple thatched shrine built during the reign of its coolto fourteen twenty seven to fourteen forty. Subsequent leaders ordered its enlargement to commemorate their military victories or sometimes as the result of flooding or other environmental problems. Excavations have

confirmed at least seven expansions. It may be surprising that they preferred to enlarge the old temple instead of building a new one, but there is a reason that has to do with the special significance of the site itself. According to myth, the god Huitzelapochili led the Aztec or Mexico on their march from the mythical homeland of Atslan to Lake Texcoco. There he showed the priests a small island where an eagle was perched on a nopal cactus

called Tenochtli in Nahuatl, the language of the Mexico. The land was little more than a swamp, but these hardy new inhabitants, almost totally uncultured, yet possessing an indomitable will. According to renowned scholar Miguel Leon Portilla, founded tinach Lican and built there the embryo of the Templo Mayor. It took the labor of thousands of people over many years

to construct this magnificent temple. The workers included not only the city's inhabitants, but also laborers from other towns that were dominated by the Aztec. These subjects were forced to work on government projects as part of their tribute to the empire. The Aztec also required them to provide building materials.

Refusal to collaborate could trigger a war, with the resulting taking and sacrificing of Templo Mayor of Tinatchilkan thus became a demonstration of the power of the Aztec rulers over the surrounding peoples. No doubt, the site was magnificent. Templo Mayor hue te Kali in Nahuatl stood in the eastern part of the ceremonial center of tinach Likan. There were seventy eight buildings in this area, including temples, priestly residences, altars, a ballgame court, and sam Panthis racks on which human

skulls were displayed. At its peak, Templo Mayor's final iteration was a truncated pyramid resting on a four tiered platform. Twin staircases access to smaller temples atop the pyramid, each dedicated to the city's main gods, Tlacloch and Huizepoltli. The Koyakhotskuima monolith was found at the base of the stairs leading to the latter temple. Templo Mayor was built symbolically represent Quatapec, the sacred mountain where the sun god Huitzilopochepli

was born. The Aztec considered it to be the center of the world, from which the four axes that mark the courses of the universe embarked. The Templo Mayor was thus the point of intersection through which cosmic energy flowed, enabling communication between gods and men. The sacred mountain is as important as the Cross in Christianity, says harbored historian of religions David Carrasco. Its pyramidal structure represented the three

levels of the Aztec world view. The square platform on which the temple stood was the horizontal plane, where all living beings existed, while the pyramid represented the celestial level and below it was the underworld. Templo Mayora was a tangible display of life and death, beginning and end. Even the two temples that crowned it reflected this symbolism. Plalak, as an aquatic divinity, represented life and substance for agricultural people such as the Aztec, while Hitzlo Pochali was the

god of war and death, sunset and sunrise. The temple also commemorated the victory of Huitzlopochli over his innumerable brothers, who, according to the myth, had conspired against him and paid for it with their lives. His sister Coatsoiqui, also rebelled, and whitz Lapochali killed her by throwing her from the summit of Mount Koatapec. A monolith representing the goddess's death was placed at the foot of the staircase leading to

Templo Mayor. As the most important temple, Templo Mayor hosted the main ceremonies of Aztec society, from the coronations of new monarchs to varied rituals relating to agriculture, reign, and the proper functioning of the heavenly bodies. The ceremonies were spread throughout the ritual calendar according to the importance of the divinity in the Aztec pantheon. Many of the human

sacrifices took place as parts of these monthly celebrations. Smith writes each year, hundreds or perhaps thousands of victims had their chests cut open and their still beating hearts ripped out by knife wielding priests as throngs of spectators looked on. The most solemn events were reserved for the most important god, whiz Lapochli. In these days, people were executed on a

stone in front of hit La Postle's temple. Their hearts were then placed on a beautiful polychrome chap mul, a reclining figure sculpted in stone in front of the temple of Tlalac. The Aztec believed human sacrifices were necessary in their religious rituals to placate the Sun God. Through these sacrifices, they repeated the deaths of the gods who sacrificed themselves in the sacred hearth of Teo Ti Hua Khan, so that men could live, feeding the movement of the sun

with their blood. They believed the sacred deaths ensured the continuity of life on earth, while reminding those who opposed the Aztec that they could die and the bloody altar of the Templo mayor. Most victims were enemy warriors captured in battle. Smith writes the captor sponsored the sacrivice, thereby gaining prestige. One of the most eagerly awaited Aztec festivals was Pantkotsarlitsi, the Raising of Banners, which was celebrated in December,

close to the winter solstice. As dawn broke, a runner carrying an image of hutz Lapocheli made of baked dough sprinted down from the top of the temple and ran away, pursued by the crowd. He first took the god to the ballgame court, where four victims were sacrificed to him and he received their hearts as an offering. The runner then continued the frantic chase through some riverside towns, followed by the faithful, who struggled to catch up with him. The reason he ran had to do with the fact

that huitz Lapocheli was never defeated. The entire route was adorned with large triumphal arches of roses, fron Japani and flags. At each arch, musicians played drums in cunk shells to announce the passing of the procession. When the idol returned to Tinochlik Khan along the Itza Parapa road, all the temple's dignitaries went out to welcome it with music and dances. Before going up the temple steps, the image was shown to those kept next to the skull fence who were

waiting their turn to be sacrificed. At the foot of the temples steps, the idol's image was placed on a platform and hoisted reverently to the top with thick ropes. Four priests held down the feet and hands of those who were to die, another held their throat, and the sixth opened their chest and extracted their heart. The priest's bodies were painted black and their hair was tied, with leather bands around their heads and little paper rings on

their foreheads. After the ceremony, the image of the god was blessed and divided among the attendees to be eaten. Another important dastek festival was the one dedicated to the goddess Toucci, part of Quat s Licou, Mother of the Gods and Heart of the Earth, which was celebrated in the temple of Mayor on September sixteenth. In this ceremony, a woman of forty to forty five years of age was offered to the goddess. They first purified her and

washed her and named her after the divinity. Before dawn on the feast day, the sanctified woman was taken outside and a man carried her on his back face up to the top of the temple. There a priest held her by the hair and slit her throat, bathing the one who held her in blood. As soon as she was dead, she was skinned from her thighs to her elbows, and the skin was used to dress the man who

had carried her up, who again represented the Goddess. He then watched a performance of a battle between young men dressed for war, in which many were badly wounded. Once the combat was over, the sacrifices in hotter of the Goddess continued. For this purpose, Wooden steps were built at the top of the temple, which the two priest executioners climbed up. The man covered with the skin of the first victim would be forced up, held in case he resisted,

and then pushed down the stairs. His throat was then slit and his blood was collected in a bowl in the same way they sacrificed all the victims dedicated to this goddess. The blood of the sacrificial victims was placed in a basin, wrapped in multi colored feathers, and set before the Mother of the gods. On November eighth, fifteen nineteen, the Spanish conqueror Hernan Cortes and his men set foot

and tinach litiplan for the first time. Astonished by the city's finally planned grandeur, they spared no praise in describing it, but it's the imposing Templo Mayor that caught their eye. Cortes himself noted in his second letter of Relation that in spite of the large number of number of temples in the city, there is one, the main one, whose

greatness and features no human tongue can describe. During the subsequent siege of Tenatlican, Templo Mayora was badly damaged by the cannon the Spanish used to subdue the se After the fall of the Aztec capital, the building was not immediately demolished. Sources confirm it was still standing as late as fifteen twenty four. With the passage of time, all

traces of the ancient Aztec place of worship disappeared. Workers of the new Mexico City used materials from pre existing buildings, so little by little, the stones from temples and other buildings in the ancient Aztec ceremonial center, including Templo Mayor, were taken and used to build sixty eight churches within the former boundaries of Tenochtitlan and talat Loco. They were also used in the countless houses and structures erected in

the city center. Since nineteen seventy eight, archeological excavations of the ancient temple have revealed more and more of the grandeur that was Templo Mayor. They've found palace rooms built in baths, the House of the Eagles, the meeting place of the military elite, a school for priests, and sculptures of snakes and serpents. As excavation work continued, use a

big mystery remains. Historical records state that the remains of three Aztec kings were cremated and their ashes buried at the foot of Templo Mayor, and yet no emperor's remains have been found. Chief archaeologists Leonardo Lopez Luchhan believes their discoveries will point to Ahwitsotl's burial place. We are persuaded that sooner or later will find his tomb, he says.

We're digging deeper and deeper. If and when they do succeed in finding the tomb, it will be the culmination of decades of work that have shed light on one of the world's most legendary and misunderstood empires divine offerings. In two thousand and six, a huge monolith dedicated to the earth goddess Tlatzla Kutli was discovered in front of

Templo Mayor. Underneath was a shaft with numerous offerings inside, perhaps because the whale was seen as a gateway to the Earth's center, Some believe it may even be a tomb, although conclusive evidence has not yet been found. The layers of Templa Mayor Temple Mayora was expanded to its largest around fifteen hundred, when the Aztec Empire was at its height. Rulers would sometimes renovate the sacred complex to commemorate victories. Work also was carried out because of floods and the

instability of the ground beneath the foundation. Ever since temple Mayor's identification in nineteen seventy eight, archaeologists have thrilled at peeling back successive layers to find the earliest phases at its heart. The Pyramid of Tenochtylclon was almost constantly under renovation from its initial construction in the fourteenth century to

its destruction in the sixteenth century. Early expansions were begun under the first three rulers of Tenatlacan, the Aztec ruse to become the region's dominant power under its cotal, who greatly enlarged the structure during his reign. His successor, Montezuma fourteen forty to fourteen sixty nine, continued expanding the temple. This concludes readings from National Geograph Bok History Magazine for today.

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