Silicon

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This is In Our Time from BBC Radio 4, and this is one of more than a thousand episodes you can find in the In Our Time archive. A reading list for this edition can be found in the episode description wherever you're listening. I hope you enjoy the program. Hello! The chemical element silicon is at the heart of some of the most useful and beautiful objects on the planet.

Created billions of years ago in dying stars, it's one of the most abundant elements in the Earth's crust and a building block of the universe. More recently, silicon has become the foundation of modern electronics And we live now in the silicon age. Less appreciated is the role it plays in the biology of life on Earth and the cycling of elements between land, oceans, and atmosphere that sustains us.

With me to discuss silicon, a Kate Hendry, oceanographer at the British Antarctic Survey and Bifellow of Queen's College, University of Cambridge. Andrea Seller, Professor of Chemistry at University College London, and Monica Grady, Professor Emeritor in Planetary and Space Sciences at the Open University.

Welcome. Monica, let's start at the very beginning. Can you take us to where it started silicon? When it started and how it was created? What is this stuff? Well, silicon was created in one of the later generation of stars. If we go back thirteen point two something billion years to the Big Bang, which is when hydrogen and helium and a little bit of lithium were created.

And then the stars came and the original stars burnt hydrogen to helium. And then the next generation of stars were burning helium to carbon. And then carbon, nitrogen and oxygen were burning. And when I say burning, I'm not talking a temperature of an ordinary fire. I'm talking billions, millions of of Kelvins, very, very hot. And you get to a stage when oxygen has been created and that burns by adding a helium nucleus to it to produce silicon.

And this is the penultimate stage before a a star will collapse. And what part did silicon then play in the formation of planets, particularly in our solar system? Because we've been going for uh uh only only four point five billion years, our solar system, we're very much sort of later generation from the Big Bang. And many, many stars have contributed

to the interstellar medium. So this is the space between the stars. It's not space. It's full of stuff. It's full of of dust, which is silicate, dust, silicon and oxygen grains together. Uh just explain to me. Silicon I understand is an element. Silicate is what? Well as as you say, silicon is an element and that's just silicon atoms or bonded together. A silicate is it's a compound where you have silicon bonded to oxygen, making long lattices and and and sheets.

And then you've got other bits and pieces in there as well magnesium, iron, calcium and so on. And these are minerals. And this stuff is is floating around in the intercellar space, as you say. It is. It's tiny, tiny little grains mixed with ice, water ice, and also still lots of hydrogen.

And you have these big clouds, molecular clouds with all this stuff in and and they might start to collapse and when they collapse They they fall in on themselves and they make a dis And there are some wonderful pictures that you can see of this actually in operation that have been taken by some of our huge telescopes.

And you can see these discs uh that you you look at them front on and you can see gaps in the disc where planets are forming, where the the the dust is clumping together and as it clumps it gets hotter and it starts to melt. And we've got these planet forming processes, um and like the earth, it was originally made of these silicates. They've started to melt. Iron goes into the metal because there's iron in the silicates, goes to the centre to form a core, and we've got the chrome.

yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw. So that means without silicon or without silicates the earth wouldn't exist. Absolutely. Absolutely.

Right, okay. Andrea Sella, can you take us now down to silicon at the atomic level? What does it comprise and and why does that matter? So so silicon is element number fourteen, which means that it has fourteen positively charged protons in its core, and then different numbers of neutrons. But the key thing is that the organizing principle for chemistry in a way is the periodic table and silicon sits directly below carbon.

And so one of the key things when we talk, for example, you know, when we hear about silicates, is the fact that silicon is almost invariably connected to four things. So if you have the the element itself, and the element is sort of a strange it's a metalloid. It sits somewhere between a nice electrically conductive metal and on the other hand a a a rather non conductive, let's say, nonmetal. It sort of sits in a sort of sweet spot in the middle.

In all of its structures, whether it be the element or in its compounds, you've always got silicon attached to four things. And that's the motif which really underpins an awful lot of the chemistry that it undergoes. What does that four things imply when you say it underpins the chemistry? Why is that number special? So the number is special essentially because you have four electrons in the

sort of outermost part of the silicon, which are available for bonding. And so what that means is that you can easily form four links. It's possible to make more. Um but certainly silicates, uh, you know, other compounds and we will perhaps come to silicones and things like that. But you've always got this number four which recurs. Now one of the beauties of silicon is that on the one hand you've got this metalloid

type behavior. But you've also got loads and loads of chemistry. And one of the things that that allows you to do is to obtain silicon in extraordinary levels of purity. And that is a whole area of technology, which is underpinned on the one hand, as you said before, the electronics industry, but also to help us um define how we measure stuff.

And the element silicon, because of this sort of strange combination of forming a very, very nice crystalline structure and at the same time having lovely chemistry that allows you to purify things. It has allowed us to define one of the key seven units that are used to measure everything in our world, and that's the mole, the unit of chemistry. The MOL must be Mole The M O L E, as in the Italian word mole, as meaning the quantity, from which molecule as in a little quantity, comes.

That's very useful, thanks. And uh just so we clarify, silicon the element, silicate it's silicon mixed with other things. What about silica? So silica is sometimes referred to as quantum. Yeah. It means silicon with just oxygen. And so I've got a beautiful sort of little clump of crystals of silica or quart.

And you can see that they're very clear. They they look rather glassy, although they've got the odd crack. But crucially, what they've got, they they've got points, and you can see that they've got very clear facets.

And the interesting thing about quartz is that you have left handed crystals and you have right handed crystals. And that's because of the structure of these silicon oxygen Aggregates is that the silicon is surrounded by four oxygens, and these form spirals which run through the structure. And what it means is that you've got left-handed crystals and right-handed crystals. They're quite odd.

Kate Henry Andrea was talking then about purity in silicon, but we don't find pure silicon very often. What forms occur naturally on the earth? So we've heard a little bit about silicates already. So silicon likes to bond with atoms of other elements, normally oxygen. Um so when there are four oxygens around silicon, that's a sort of basic silicate structure.

What can happen then is that the oxygen can bond with other metals, magnesium and iron, and in fact in some cases these when these build these big framework structures that we've heard about, um aluminium can sort of swap in for the silicon if you like.

And those are the sort of silicate minerals. There's lots of different ways those um silicate shapes can come together to form these crystals, and there's a whole array of different minerals. But that's probably one of the most common ways that we find silicon on the earth. We've heard about silica as well. We've heard a bit about how sometimes what happens when silica forms a structure is that rather than one silicon surrounded by four oxygens, the silicons sort of start to share the oxygens.

So the ratio of silicon to oxygen changes and you get um just usually one silicon to two oxygens. So that's what happens in quartz, as you've heard about already. Ond mae'r silica yn ymwneud â'r silica yn ymwneud â'r higgledy-piggledy'n ymwneud â'r silica. Mae'r silica yn ymwneud â'r silica. Mae'r silica yn ymwneud â glass. So that can happen in nature. So if you call a a lava, a molten rock very quickly, it doesn't form a crystal, it will form this glass. So it's volcanic glass.

But also something that I am really interested in is that biology can do this too. So biological processes can actually make this amorphous silica, which we call biogenic silica. Well I was going to ask you, what's the what's the link between silicon and life on Earth?

Well, every living organism needs at least a little bit of silicon, including us. So we need a trace amount of silicon in our diet for our bones to be healthy. Uh we don't normally have a problem getting silicon from um our diet. There's plenty in drinking water, for example. There's quite a lot in beer as it happens. Um so uh it it's actually quite a quite a good source of of silicon. Um, but in in the plants that we eat as well. So we're we're generally fine with getting enough silicon.

But some organisms actually need a lot more silica in their diets, if you like, and those are the organisms that make this biogenic silica. It's an absolute requirement for them to have it. Rydyn ni'n gweithwyr sy'n gweithwyr sy'n gweithwyr sy'n gweithwyr sy'n gweithwyr sy'n gweithwyr sy'n gweithwyr. Mae'n gweithio'n gweithio'n gweithio'n gweithio'n gweithio'n gweithio'n gweithio'n gweithio'n gweithio'n gweithio'n gweithio.

Are they actually are they sort of gathering the silica up or are they producing silica itself? So they take in silicon from their environment and this is the silicon that's dissolved in the water that they're living in. So dissolved silicon in in the earth's oceans and in fresh waters.

yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw. Right. Okay. So we've had silicon, we've had silica, we've had silicate.

We'll come on to silicones later, but Monica, before we do, let's just stick with silicates and how they develop on earth and in particular I'm interested in th what they produce as minerals.

Well, this is these compounds where you've got silicon bonded to oxygen, um, bonded to another silicon, bonded to another oxygen, and you get these enormous great big you can make sheets, you can make rings, you can make cages of silicon and oxygen and occasionally you add a magnesium, you add an iron, a calcium, an aluminium. And you make lots and lots of different minerals. And you also make very beautiful minerals. Andre had his colourless quartz.

But if you put um a b a bit of you know, a pinch of something else in there, you get amethysts, the beautiful purple semi precious gemstone, and you can get citrine and tiger quartz, which yellow and brown and all these different colo colours. ac mae'n ymwneud â'r ymwneud â'r ymwneud â'r ymwneud â'r ymwneud â'r ymwneud â'r ymwneud. Uh so so jewelry basically depends upon silicon. Well jewellery uh depends upon elements from um the the period uh number four in the table.

No, it's not, it's the group four, because a lot of our jewellery, of course, is diamonds, which is carbon, and we know that silicon is just below. And we're carbon, monster carbon, monster carbon, monster carbon, to make the diamond structure. Here we have silicon bonded to oxygen, bonded to oxygen, bonded to silicon to make the silicate structure to get those beautiful crystals as well.

Now let's get back to the purification of of silicon and there's a reason for this, uh, Andrea, because for most ordinary people, let's face it. Silicon is associated with three things with sealants that you put around your bathtub with Silicones. Then there is the gel that m some people use to enhance various body parts. Again, silicone.

Good. So we're we're really hitting the silicones here. And then finally there are si semiconductors and silicon silicon valley. Now, first of all, can you explain what a silicone is? And secondly, how do we purify silicon so that it can be used in microchips, in semiconductors, essentially?

So at the heart of all of this is the chemistry of s of the element silicon. And in the case of silicone What you're doing is you're exploiting the fact that first of all, silicon likes to form long chains or even rings. alternating silicon and oxygen. Now of course that means that if you have a silicon you are attached to two oxygens. That means you've got room for two more things. And those two more things will typically be carbon.

And so now you can start to make long chains, i.e., plastics. And those plastics are quite interesting because they can be made extremely elastic, deformable, rubber-like. And so the silicones are y you can make kind of gelatinous ones, you can make quite stiff ones, you can make doingy ones to use the technical term, right? The kind of thing that you'll have in your kitchen, right? The the the sort of s kitchen spatulas, that sort of thing.

And and that's really because of the availability of the uh of the chemistry and the fact that we've refined that so much. But to actually get to the element is quite interesting. And so like so many metals, um, you've got to smelt it. And the way in which that smelting is done turns out to be using carbon. So you start by mixing essentially coke or coal and you take

You grind them together and then you heat them very hot. The result is you get carbon dioxide coming off, and you are left with pretty good pure silicon at the end of it. That silicon is about you can get it ninety eight, ninety nine percent pure, but that's nowhere near good enough for what you really want if you want to do. the that semiconductor industry, that microprocessor, all that kind of technology. Yet for the extreme purity you need, you go one step further.

And the one step further is an extraordinary process that was invented by a Polish metallurgist. called Chokralsky. And he was m one day idly working at his desk and he had his inkwell on the desk and also a crucible containing some molten metal. And without Uh realizing it, he dipped his pen in the molten metal, pulled it out, and out came an extraordinary thread of beautiful crystalline metal. And this is the inspiration for how silicon is purified. What you do is you take a crystal.

of ultra pure silicon. and you dip it into a bath which contains molten silicon. Now silicon melts at fourteen hundred degrees. So you know, this is not a process for the faint hearted. You've got to keep oxygen away because it'll instantly turn to the oxide. And now what you do is you rotate both the crystal and the pot and you pull the crystal upward. And as you do so, the silicon atoms, as they solidify, as they crystallize onto the surface.

They crystallize in a perfect crystal. They form a single, enormous crystal, several, I mean tens of centimeters across. And above all, because it's quite slow, If there are any impurities that stick to the crystal, they have time to come off and be replaced by the silicon itself. And so now you get to levels of purity which are one in a billion. It's extraordinary.

Going to we're going to come back a little bit later and work out what the implications of that were for electronics in in particular.

Um, but Kate, I want to move on to something else here. Um back to life on earth and and silicon. Diatums. Tell us what diatoms are in the oceans and How they regulate our atmosphere, and what's silicon got to do with it? So diatoms are a group of organisms I've not yet mentioned. They're really important in terms of the silicon cycle. So they're one of these organisms that make their shells out of silica.

Mae'r diatoms yn ymwneud â'r argyl, felly mae'n ymwneud â'r sylweddol. Mae'n ymwneud â'r sylweddol ac mae'n ymwneud â'r sylweddol ac mae'n ymwneud â'r sylweddol i'n ymwneud â'r sylweddol ac yn ymwneud â'r sylweddol ac yn ymwneud â'r sylweddol. So they essentially in the oceans they form the same perform the same role as plants. They are the primary producers of the ecosystems.

Yn yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw. So not only do they fuel ecosystems, but they are really important for carbon cycling, and that's that link with climate, because they draw that CO two down from the atmosphere. When diatoms die, they sink. They're actually fairly efficient at sinking out of the surface ocean where it's light, where they grow, down into the depths.

So they take that organic matter with them, and that can be buried away from the atmosphere for for thousands of years. So they're really critical for carbon. Snälla, snälla, sluta! Jag kommer inte köpa utåt er! Det blir i alla fall inte värre så här. Ibland är ett nej, det finaste du kan ge. Systembolaget. Annorlunda av en anledning. Upplev mer av varje resa. Nu kan du privatlisa en pluginhybrid eller hybrid från bara 3 995 kr i månaden. Innovativ design med smarta och säkra funktioner.

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Mae'n rwy'n rwy'n rwy'n rwy'n rwy'n rwy'n rwy'n rwy'n rwy'n rwy'n rwy'n rwy'n rwy'n rwy'n rwy'n rwy'n rwy'n rwy'n rwy'n rwy'n Scientists are working very hard on trying to understand those pathways. What we do know is that they take and dissolved silicon from their environment, they transport the silicon across their cell membranes. If the concentration of silicon in the water is pretty high, it can diffuse, but normally it's this active uptake that they use.

From there they use a special organelle, special device within their cells called a silica deposition vesicle SDV. And what they do is that they concentrate the silicon the dissolved silicon so high that it starts to essentially spontaneously precipitate out of solution to make this silica.

And um like I say, they make their shells out of silica and they are absolutely beautiful. They m have ornate structures, they have um holes and spikes in all sorts of beautiful patterns in all sorts of shapes and sizes. That's all very much genetically controlled, so every species is identifiable by its shape and by its um ornate structure.

I mean this this point about beauty is really important. I mean in the in the in the eighteen sixties a man called Adolf Schmidt produced an extraordinary atlas of the structures of these things. And they're just amazing. They're they're just wild. But may I just add something to to what Kate just said, because on the one hand you've got the problem of

kind of concentrating the silica, having, you know, a mechanism to be able to pull it out of the water, shove it into the cell. Then you've got to get it concentrated enough that you can precipitate it. But then the other thing you've got to do is to Put it into the right shapes. And one of the things which is quite mysterious and a a huge area of active research is how does biology control crystallization?

And this is done with these essentially with soft biological structures, self-organizing and providing templates. And and how that works in detail is something which people are working on. But it's amazing. Kate, you've got one which looks like a pair of trousers that you're fond of. Yeah. It's that day. So well it's a species called Eucampia Antarctica. It lives in the waters around Antarctica, as its name might suggest.

And um it's a type of diatom called eccentric diatom. So these are sort of flat discs, if you like, in their very basic form, but they can have all sorts of ornamentation to them. And these ones in particular grow these sort of almost horn like structures.

So if you sort of orientate it in the right way, it does look a bit like a pair of trousers. And sometimes they're a little bit shorter so they look a little bit more like a pair of shorts instead. But it's just a child in me. I just quite like that. I think they're quite they're quite fun. And they produce a lot of oxygen, is that right? Um they are so the algae around the oceans will also produce oxygen, so that's another link with with life, absolutely.

Uh as I say it's it's also this really strong link with carbon cycling in particular that we're interested in in the moment uh at the moment. And um I said right at the beginning that diatoms uh control the silicon cycle. They're really important for the silicon cycle. They've essentially revolutionized how silicon is cycled on the planet. They evolved well, they appeared in the fossil record.

very patchally in the Mesozoic. So this is a time of the dinosaurs. But then after that, uh after the dinosaurs died out sixty five million years ago, the diatoms really took off then. So, you know, you might think we're living in the age of mammals, but in my view we're living in the age of the diatoms. And since then, because they're so good at taking up that dissolved silicon from the ocean, they've essentially stripped silicon out of the surface ocean entirely.

Um so if you go in most parts of the ocean today you'll find pretty low levels of silicon in the surface ocean. And that means that the availability of that dissolved silicon can actually limit how much they grow. So how silicon gets into the oceans and how it moves around is really important. And I mentioned that because that's actually my

research area. So I just need to get that in there. But especially in the polar regions where we're seeing a lot of climatic change, a lot of those processes are linked with that supply of silicon. So be it things like glacial weathering. or how the big Arctic rivers are releasing silicon into the ocean, for example. A lot of this is changing very quickly and could actually be impacting diatoms and how they grow. Thank you very much.

Monica, we're going on to another compound now, and that's silicon carbide. Right. Tell us about silicon carbide and its long journey and and what does it do? Well I also have um something with me. It's nowhere near as beautiful as Quartz Crystal. What I've got is a a small piece of a meteorite and it just looks a bit like a piece of coal. It's it's a sort of matte black in colour.

And it's a very special type of meteorite. It's called carbonaceous chondrite because it's it's got a lot of carbon in it. And these meteorites also have got Grains within them m th the most part of this meteorite, which has come from an asteroid, was made at the time the solar system was made, four point five six seven billion years ago. But some of the tiny grains in here were made in other stars.

Rydyn ni'n cael ei wneud yn yr ymwneudol sy'n ymwneudol sy'n ymwneudol sy'n ymwneudol sy'n ymwneudol sy'n ymwneudol sy'n ymwneudol massive stars, red giants that are burning silicon and it gets mixed up and there's the most wonderful processes going on in stars. What we have nuclear fusion, which is uh bringing the elements together.

But also you've got a lot of uh uh turbidity and you've got a lot of mixing. And when you've used up some of the fuel, part of the outer part of a star will will collapse in itself, but then you get turbulence and material is dredged up and you have some wonderful things called hot bottom burning and you have dredger And the silicon carbide crystals are made in a procedure of a third dredge up of a hot bottom burning star.

But i i it's these things that are then blown off the star when the star might explode or or have its stellar wind. And you've got silicon carbide there. And we can tell that it's from a different star. than than our sun, because our sun is not burning to make silicon. but also the carbon isotopes. We've talked about carbon the atom, but we have different isotopes, different amounts of the the particles in the core, in the the nucleus of the atom.

And most of the carbon in the solar system has ninety two atoms which weigh twelve units to one atom which weighs thirteen units. In some of these stars it's four twelves to to one thirteen. And we can see that in these silicon carbides. We also have graphite there. we have um aluminium oxides there, uh we have diamonds as well, all all these different pre solar grains. You can't see them in this little bit I have here, but they're there. And and what does what does silicon carbide do?

Doesn't do very much really. Silicon I mean i i in a meteorite I suspect it doesn't it just is. it's there yes um But but silicon carbide is technologically extremely important. When you think of the fact that carbon and silicon have the same structure, you can actually make a kind of alloy, but it's actually a fifty fifty mix.

of carbon and silicon together. And as you would expect for something that has a diamond structure, it is exceptionally hard. We sometimes refer to it as carborundum, and so it's very widely used for polishing and so on. It's it's the grains that you find on emery paper. carburundum. But also moisenite is silicon carbide the mineral and that can also be polished and be a some of the first industrial diamonds were made of moisenite.

So talking about applications, Andrea, I want to know about semiconductors, silicon's importance, and why from the nineteen fifties onwards the silicon age really blossoms. Yeah, I mean the Silicon Age is is kind of critical. It's it's the moment when the world transformed from really being kind of steel based and and you know, we were quite electrical with copper. but really when silicon took off. And when I was a child I remember that there were these things which are called solid state.

and and I wanted a set of w m solid state walkie-talkies that had, you know, the transistor rating. And all of that comes from the fact that that silicon is not a metal. Now I've got a a wafer of silicon, of ultra pure. So it's a it's a beautiful little disc.

with a mirror like finish, it looks metallic but it has a faintly purple sheen to it. And when I said before that there's a difference between metals in these metalloids, or semiconductors, You can think of a metal as being a material in which essentially the electrons are pretty well free to move. And so there are loads of motorways that allow them to travel around. And so they can be sloshed from one side to the other.

Silicon, although it conducts electricity somewhat, there's quite a bad traffic jam in a sense, partly because the electrons are actually being used to hold the silicons together. But there's something quite interesting and that is sitting above our traffic jam turn out to be motorways. There's a sort of region where the electrons can move.

And the fact that silicon has this kind of gap between where the electrons are kind of immobile and the region where they can, that's the thing which really makes all the difference. is that you can actually control the movements of the electrons, and that is often done by the addition of deliberate impurities into the silicon in places where you want them.

Thank you, Andrea. Back to the uh diatoms which are made partially with silicon, because Kate, one of the things you've looked at is how our studying of diatoms Uh can tell us about long term patterns in climate and climate change. Absolutely. And that all relies on a few different things coming together. So going back to what I mentioned earlier that diatoms are very good at sinking. So when their cells die, their cells sink to the seafloor and they can get buried in sediments.

and they can get preserved there. Um as sediments build up through time, it's a little bit like pages of a book. Uh you can sort of go back through the pages and read back through the history of time just like you would a an old diary.

So what we can do is we can go and take cores of those sediments and we can figure out how old they are. First of all, that's important. We need to know how old the sediments are as they go down deeper into the sediments. And at each of those horizons we can look at the diatoms that are there.

And the other thing I mentioned as well before is that all those beautiful shapes they make are really distinctive in terms of the different species. So we can count the different species that have grown through time. Now this is important because some species uh love to live in particular environments. Some of them live all over the place. We call them cosmopolitan diatoms, but some of them are very specific.

Yeah. Yeah. Um and so one example of this is that well, a couple of species of one genus called Fragillariopsis. grow in sea ice. They only really live in sea ice. So if we if we find those species back through time, we know that there's sea ice there. So this gives us what we call a proxy for understanding how where sea ice has been in the past.

And so if we're trying to figure out how sensitive the sea ice extent is around Antarctica, for example, we can do that. And this is what's done. It's been it was done actually a couple of decades ago. And um what scientists did is took lots and lots of cores around Antarctica and mapped out exactly how far sea ice got during the last ice age.

And you can also do it for warmer periods too. And that means we can understand that sensitivity. And that means that if we're trying to make future projections of where sea ice is going as a result of current global warming, we can actually test the models against what we understand from our observations.

Thank you, Kate. Um, Monica, we've been talking about the elements such as silicon travelling from distant stars, collapsing and so on. If you're in a dark place outside and you've got a really good view of the night sky. You'll see that the stars are different colours. You know, some are bluish, some are reddish, some are w white.

And the different colours are the different stars and they have their different sizes, their different brightnesses, luminosity, uh different temperatures, different ages. And by looking at stars and seeing what they're doing, is it a red giant star? Is it a a a blue giant? Is it uh a white dwarf?

we can tell the processes that are going on in those stars and we can look at the the different clusters of stars and it tells us about It tells us about the ages of of the stars and what's actually been happening as the galaxy evolves and also when we look at other galaxies and um try and make judgments about the stars within them.

What's really interesting though is that because we've learned a lot about the behaviour of silicon in the solar system and in planet formation in the solar system, we can look at other stars that have got planets around them. and we can make inferences about what those planets might might be doing.

Now some of the planets, some of the biggest planets that we've seen around other stars are what we call hot Jupiters, and these are stars that are as big or as big or bigger than Jupiter, but they are orbiting their stars much closer than Mercury. orbits our star. And some of those have got really hot atmospheres which have got actually silicon gas or silicon hydride gas.

or silicon oxide gas in their atmospheres. And it's like well, there's not going to be any life on those. No chance. But as our telescopes get more powerful, and we can see uh in greater detail planets round other stars, we're going to be able to see things like, Oh well actually this particular star uh uh has got planet round it which which looks like Earth

Maybe it's got oxygen in its atmosphere, you know, maybe it's uh you know, got water there, maybe it's got diatoms in the water, we don't know. But the idea that the earth is a singular planet I think being put to rest with the f the finding of so many Earth like planets. Whether the earth is singular in having life we still don't know but Yeah. I've been talking about physics, right? The physics of silicon.

Which then moves on to the chemistry of silicon, Andrea talked about, which then moves on to the biology of silicon, which is what Kate's talking about. And then we bring all these together and we start saying, Well, actually, what's the chance The physics is is based on what happened in the Big Bang, the chemistry is based on the atomic structure, and the biology is based on what those atoms do. And it's like, is it likely that it's only happened on Earth? I don't know. Kate.

Yeah, just an interesting sort of thing to note as well, which is that um right at the beginning when I said that biology can do this. yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n yw'n And there are lots of assumptions that go into these calculations, but we're able to calculate how long ago it is that those proteins evolved.

And they're incredibly ancient, these silicon transporters. They go back, if we're right, billions of years. So it's a very fundamental process within our planet's biology of moving silicon around. So were these some of the very earliest uh you know, sort of pre Cambrian type uh Rydyn ni'n meddwl, mae'n sy'n sy'n sy'n sy'n sy'n sy'n sy'n sy'n sy'n sy'n sy'n sy'n sy'n sy'n sy'n sy'n sy'n sy'n sy'n sy'n sy'n sy'n sy'n. Brilliant.

Andrea, talking about the tree of life, um, our life is carbon based. Is it theoretically possible to have life that would be silicon based? That's funny. This is a question that comes up over and over again. And if you look at science fiction writers Isaac Asimov and l lots of others have always imagined that you might land on a planet where you find you know, some weird life form. And people have certainly tried to see what they can do.

I think what I would say is that first of all that the idea that that life is carbon based slightly annoying in that yeah, carbon. But my God, if you haven't got silicon, if you haven't got sodium, if you haven't got calcium, if you haven't got molybdenum, iron, copper, nickel, you know, all of these things. So it being carbon based is a bit of a fallacy. So

Oh no, I disagree. It's based on carbon and it's got all these bits and pieces a added in, but you know, it's like saying bread is based on flour. Uh d well what I would what I would say is that carbon certainly provides huge amounts of the machinery and the structures and in a way the chemical intelligence. associated with cells. And so carbon is absolutely fundamental. But to imagine that carbon, you know, is somehow stands out from the rest

I'm less sure. That said, one of the unique things about carbon is the fact that actually many of its compounds are not very reactive because the carbon is quite small and the atoms around it shield it. And that's one of the things which make so much of chemistry possible and so interesting. Silicon's a little bit larger, it's a little bit more reactive. And so actually, some of the structures that we think about when we think carbon-based structures that we think about associated with life.

start being more flexible, more floppy, less rigid, and so things like information storage in in DNA is entirely based on the rigidity of these structures. Whether that can be replicated with silicon based things, I don't know, but there's certainly people trying. Monica, you seem to imply that it would be at least theoretically possible that somewhere else in the universe silicon based life existed.

Well, I uh I wouldn't be surprised at anything that the universe throws at us, you know. I really wouldn't. But if we've got if we've got the diatoms which require silicon, w which uh um can take silicon through a membrane Uh I can I'm thinking more on the sort of neural networks type thing where y you know, you you've got the idea that which can transfer signals in the same way the neurons in the brain transfer signals.

Can we have that sort of integration of a silicate-based network with a carbon-based network to make some sort of being? I haven't got a clue. But uh it'd be really cool to find out. Well, on that uh fascinating unar unanswered question, um it's time to bring this week's episode to a close. But my thanks go to Monica Grady, Kate Hendry, and Andrea Sella.

Next week it's eighteen ninety eight and the Spanish American War when Spain lost Cuba and the rest of its remaining empire, and the USA gained the Philippines and Puerto Rico. Thanks for listening. And the In Our Time podcast gets some extra time now with a few minutes of bonus material from Misha and his guests. Anything else that you want to throw in there that we haven't mentioned yet? Monica.

It's not a qu it's not something that I want to throw in. It's a question I want to ask. I want to ask Andrea.

You're talking about the left handed and the right handed quartz molecules. Beth yw'r hynny? Beth yw'r hyn? Beth yw'r hyn? Beth yw'r hyn? So what it does is it changes two things. First of all you see it in the the shape of the actual crystal. And the interesting thing is you can see those facets on the crystal, which in fact are extremely important historically, because it was measuring the angles between the faces of quartz and other minerals, which led people to realize that there must be

unique sort of fundamental chunks, unit cells from which things were built. And quartz plays a very important role in that. Um but the second thing, and it turns out I've brought a prison More shows. made of quartz but you can see that it's two kind of triangular pieces which have been glued together with the legendary Canada balsam, which is a completely transparent adhesive that was used Mm from the eighteenth uh through into the twentieth century.

And it goes a horrible yellow colour when it's Yes, that's right. That's right. And it turns out that photons effectively travel in a spiral. And that means that if you have very precise optics Using a quartz crystal, it's going to give you problems because it will behave slightly differently with the two kinds of handiness. If on the other hand you have two of these oppositely arranged quartz chunks together, one cancels out the other. Now, why would you want to use quartz optics?

Quartz is a pain, right? You need to heat it to you know 1200, 1400 degrees to to actually soften it and work with it. the thing about quartz is that it's transparent in the ultraviolet part of the spectrum. And so you if you use quartz optics, you can look much further down at all kinds of interesting electronic properties. Kate, I I th there was something I wanted to ask you because we recently did a programme on Archaea and

I learnt then that there are three domains of life bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotic beings, multicellular beings. And now you tell me that this this single cellular life, the diatoms, What are they? They sit in eukaryotes. Yep, they're they're nestled in there as well. So yeah, all the algae groups sit in there. Um and those silicon transporters I mentioned, like I say, they've been found in new bacteria and in eukaryotes. Um and it could well be there in Archaea as well. Um yeah, well.

What fascinates me about the tree of life is when you look at it is how close we are to slime molds. Ha ha ha. We haven't come very far, have we? Well. Well that was the interesting thing about the discussion with Archaea was just how much DNA we we share with Archaea or certain certain species of Archaea, certainly. I have terrible.

Kate. And that is, you know, you talked before about how the these diatoms they sink once they die through the ocean and land at the bottom and they form these sediments. Well as a chemist I'm a big fan of those sediments and and it's rather tragic.

the fact that those sediments that are referred to as Fuller's earth or bentonite or diatomaceous earth even are absolutely fantastic filters for doing chemistry. And so we will pour a bunch of these a an inch of of some of these beautiful things, although all we see is dust, right, onto a filter and then pour our solutions through and we know that it is so fine that it will capture you know, it will stop uh very fine salts and and other bits from getting through.

That's okay, there's plenty to go around. Well, if I feel they're they're sacrificed for a good cause. In that uh I also need to make a a a confession then, Kate, because we also take these sorts of things and stuff'em in a test tube. for purifying gases. So we we uh cool it down with liquid nitrogen and condense different gases and then when you heat them up the different gases come off at different temperatures. Because these are fantastic filters. Just they're really great, you know?

Delighted. I'm

Monica, tell us a bit more about um rocks and silicon and clay, all that relationship of All that stuff. Okay, so I talked a bit about when the the planet formed, we've got these these dust grains, so the silicates mixed with other stuff. uh clumped together, heated, we have the smelting reaction going on so the iron went to the center t to make the core. And then we have on the surface a layer the the crust.

of the earth, which is what we walk on, which has got i it's sort of depleted a little bit in iron compared to some of the other rocks. And we also have these in the meteorite collection. And you know, here's another of my show and tell bits. This is a meteorite which has come from the asteroid Vesta. and it's really black and shiny on the outside. That's where it got heated up as it came through the atmosphere.

But when you look at it on the inside it's a very pale whitish grey colour, and this is because the minerals in here are mainly calcium, aluminium, oxygen, silicate based with calcium and aluminium, sodium and potassium in, but very, very little iron.

and magnesium. And this is also what we see on the surface of the moon. When you look at the moon and most of it's silver but you've got the face which is the darker bits. The darker bits have got the magnesium and the iron in. And the lighter bits are the same stuff as as this.

Mae'n yw'r yw'r yw'r yw'r yw'r yw'r yw'r yw'r yw'r yw'r yw'r yw'r yw'r yw'r yw'r Now the next thing that can happen, as it hasn't happened on the moon, but it's happened on Earth and it's happened on Mars, is if you get water there, you get those minerals can be altered.

ac mae'n cael ei gweithio'r cyllid, mae'r cyllid sylid sylid sy'n sylid sy'n sylid sy'n sylid sy'n sylid sy'n sylid sy'n sylid sy'n sylid sy'n sy'n sylid sy'n sy'n sylid sy'n sy'n sy'n sy'n sy'n sy'n sy'n sy'n sy'n sy'n sy'n sy'n sy'n sy'n sy'n sy'n sy'n sy'n sy'n sy'n sy'n sy'n sy'n sy'n sy'n sy'n sy'n sy'n And this is it's a a a a sort of I dunno, what size is it? A walnut size? No, it's smaller than that. Smaller than that.

Hazelnut. Hazelnut sized, little nugget, which and you look look at it, it's a palish green in colour. And this is a meteorite that has come from Mars. So this is a piece of Mars that You mean it's broken off now? It's uh a an asteroid came and hit Mars and bits broke off it and in here we've got some of those sheet silicates which have got water in them.

And we know there's been water on Mars, we know that there is water on the earth. We actually know that there is water on the moon now in in some places.

But, you know, this is the reason why we think that there could well be life on Mars because we've got these phylosilicotes there, those these clay minerals which some people have suggested might be a template for other molecules to sink down to attach to to form the membranes which then enclosed cells to to have the the first earliest cells forming for, you know, whether you've got your nucleus in there and all that sort of stuff.

So again, this is something else, which is the interface between chemistry and biology, and then going on for life. Andrew, I've got one uh final question for you about semiconductors and Moore's Law. uh and why chips can get smaller and smaller and more and more powerful. Does that have anything to do with the properties of silicon that that that you can get so many transistors on a on a wee chip.

I mean in many ways it's not so much the s the silicon as I think our ability to fabricate these things. and that we have been able to um Replicate. sort of i well, i essentially etch and to deposit and to put structures onto this silicon framework, let's say.

W in ever finer detail. And people keep saying we're going to hit the buffers because sooner or later the little wires, you know, that are embedded in these things, the connections, are getting so close together that you're going to start getting quantum talk. And yet the semiconductor industry has managed to defy that over and over again. It's quite extraordinary. Well, thank you all very much. Uh the conclusion that I have from this is is on the whole, silicon is a jolly good thing.

Um Absolutely. Yeah. Yeah. I think a life without silicon would be close to a life without sunshine. Oh. Or cheese. Go like to your coffee. I'd love a cup of tea. Coffee, please. Cup of tea for me. Thank you very much. In Our Time with Misha Glenny is produced by Simon Tillotson and it's a BBC Studios production. I'm Jamie Bartlett, and for BBC Radio 4, I'll be looking at how Fakery took over the world. No, no, hang on, hang on, sorry. You're not Jamie Bartlett, I'm Jamie Bartlett.

Oh really? Well who am I then? I'm afraid you're not real pal. You're just an imitation chatbot I created to help me make this series on modern fakery. Sounds good. In it. Well, there's a lot. Nineteen eighties professional wrestling, dodgy academics, AI psychosis, COVID vaccine, skeptics. What's it called? Everything is fake and nobody cares, with me, Jamie Bartlett. And me. First on B. Snälla, snälla, sluta! Jag kommer inte köpa efter till er!

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