For a 10-month period from September 1793 to July 1794, the nation of France went through a period which could only be called insanity. In the aftermath of the French Revolution, a small group of radicals took control of the revolutionary French government and began eliminating all enemies of the revolution, both real and perceived. Tens of thousands of people were imprisoned, and thousands met their end with what the French called Madame la Guillotine.
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The French Revolution wasn't just a political revolution, it was also a cultural revolution. They didn't just want to get rid of the king, but some more radical revolutionaries wanted to change everything about French society. In previous episodes, I covered some of these extreme changes. They included totally changing the calendar from the Gregorian calendar we use today to a brand new calendar with new months, days, weeks, and years.
They also tried to get rid of not just the Catholic Church, but Christianity entirely, and replace it with a cult of reason or a cult of the supreme being. As radical as these changes were, they were not the peak of extremism during the revolution. That would be a 10-month period known as the Reign of Terror, a time when even the most ardent revolutionaries weren't safe.
To briefly summarize, the French Revolution began in 1789 as a response to widespread social inequality, an economic crisis, and the absolute monarchy of King Louis XVI. The Estates General, a legislative assembly convened in May of 1789, leading to the formation of the National Assembly and the storming of the Bastille in July, where many political prisoners were held.
Over the next few years, the monarchy was gradually stripped of power, culminating in the King's arrest and the declaration of the first French Republic in 1792. In the aftermath of the 1792 insurrection that toppled the monarchy, France faced mounting crises on multiple fronts. The newly established National Convention, which was elected by universal male suffrage, was deeply divided between two groups, the Girondins and the Montagnards, also known as the Mountain in English.
The Girondins represented provincial, moderate republicanism, whereas the Mountain, led by figures like Maximilian Robespierre, Georges Danton, and Jean-Paul Marat, advocated more radical measures and enjoyed the support from the Parisian Saint-Culat. who were the more radical lower-class people of Paris. Foreign armies threatened France's borders after the declaration of war against Austria in April of 1792 and later expanded to include Prussia, Great Britain, Spain, and other powers.
By early 1793, France faced a coalition of European monarchies determined to crush the revolution. In addition, France suffered economic problems including rising food prices, currency depreciation, and shortages of basic necessities, which fueled popular unrest, particularly amongst the urban poor.
Counter-revolutionary activity increased, particularly in the Vendee region on the Atlantic coast. In March of 1793, a major rebellion erupted, and then other uprisings followed in major cities like Lyon, Marseille, and Bordeaux. The political atmosphere grew increasingly radical and paranoid, with each side accusing the other of betraying the revolution.
The Girondins accused the Mountain of harboring dictatorial ambitions, while the Mountain charged the Girondins with being soft on counter-revolution and insufficiently committed to defending the Republic. As the military and economic crises deepened, the National Convention recognized the need for more centralized executive authority. The convention established the first Committee of Public Safety on April 6, 1793.
Initially, it consisted of nine members who were tasked with supervising ministers and taking emergency measures to defend the republic. George Danton became its most influential early member. The first committee was relatively moderate, but after military setbacks and the outbreak of Federalist revolts, it was reconstituted on July 10th. Maximilian Robespierre joined the committee on July 27th and gradually became its dominant figure.
The committee's power expanded incrementally. Initially formed as a temporary expedient for crisis management, it evolved into the revolution's central governing body with authority over military affairs, foreign policy, economic measures, and internal security. While power was becoming centralized in the Committee of Public Safety, things were breaking down between the Girondins and the Mountain. Political tensions between the factions intensified in early 1793.
The Drondons attempted to prosecute Jean-Paul Marat, a radical journalist and mountain deputy, but his acquittal by the Revolutionary Tribunal on April 24th represented a major political defeat for them. The economic situation worsened, with food shortages and inflation fueling popular anger. The Girondins opposed the price controls demanded by the Parisian sans-culades, further alienating them from this powerful political force.
On May 31st, armed Parisians surrounded the convention demanding the arrest of 22 Girondin deputies and two ministers. The convention initially resisted, but on June 2nd, a larger insurrectionary force of up to 80,000 National Guardsmen surrounded the assembly. Under this pressure, the convention voted to arrest 29 Girondin deputies and two ministers. Some managed to escape Paris and fled to provincial cities, but most of them were arrested.
Many of the arrested Girondins were later tried and guillotined in October of 1793. Their execution removed the main moderate opposition within the government and solidified mountain control of the convention and the entire revolution. With the Girondins removed and the Committee of Public Safety empowered, several developments accelerated the move toward systematic terror.
The Federalist revolts in cities like Lyon, Marseille, Bordeaux, and Cannes, encouraged by the escaped Girondin deputies, were portrayed as treasonous conspiracies rather than political opposition, justifying extreme measures. The assassination of Jean-Paul Marat by Charlotte Corday, a Girondin sympathizer, on July 13th, inflamed radical sentiment and strengthened calls for vengeance against enemies of the people.
The Law of Suspects, passed on September 17, vastly expanded the categories of people who could be arrested for counter-revolutionary activities or sentiments. The revolutionary tribunal in Paris was reorganized to expedite trials and similar tribunals were established in provincial cities. The creation of the Committee of General Security, working alongside the Committee of Public Safety, provided the administrative machinery to implement surveillance and arrests.
By the fall of 1793, all of these factors, the centralized power of the committees of general security and public safety, the law of suspects, and the lack of Girondin moderation, created the basis for the reign of terror. Under Robespierre and the Committee of Public Safety, the machinery of state repression expanded dramatically. The Revolutionary Tribunal in Paris accelerated its operations, often conducting perfunctory trials followed by swift executions.
Similar tribunals function in major cities across France. The violence took different forms in different regions. In Paris, the guillotine became the symbol of revolutionary justice with public executions in what is now the Place de la Concorde. In provincial areas facing rebellion, the repression was even more severe. Mass drownings in Nantes, mass shootings in Lyon, and brutal suppression of the Vendee Uprising.
The scope of people targeted began to grow. The former queen, Marie Antoinette, was guillotined in October of 1793, as were other leading Girondins. Prominent revolutionaries deemed too radical, such as Jacques-René Hébert and his followers, were executed in March 1794. Revolutionaries considered too moderate, including Georges Danton, were executed in April 1794. In addition, thousands of ordinary citizens were denounced by neighbors or local authorities, often for petty or personal reasons.
The terror was accompanied by radical social and cultural policies, which I previously mentioned, including the de-Christianization campaigns, the adoption of a new revolutionary calendar, price controls, and attempts to create a new civic festival and a republic of virtue.
By the summer of 1794, despite French military victories reducing external threats to the country, Robespierre pushed for intensified revolutionary purity through measures like the Law of 22 Prairie Al, which removed legal protections for the accused and accelerated further executions. In total, approximately 16,000 to 17,000 people were officially executed during the Reign of Terror, with tens of thousands more dying in prison or in the suppression of rebellions.
Robespierre, however, had gone too far. With the Law of 22 Prairielle, everyone was worried about their safety. On June 8, 1794, Robespierre had presided over the Festival of the Supreme Being, a civic celebration that he had personally championed as part of his effort to establish a new civic religion. While Robespierre viewed this as the culmination of revolutionary virtue, many people saw it as evidence of his dictatorial ambitions and messianic self-image.
Robespierre returned to the convention on July 26th and delivered a lengthy rambling speech. He spoke of conspiracies against the Republic and hinted at the need for another purge of treasonous elements. but crucially failed to name any specific target. This vagueness caused panic amongst the deputies, many of whom feared that they might be on Robespierre's list. With everyone now potentially at risk, self-preservation drove many to conspire against him.
That night, various factions in the convention, including more moderate allies of Danton, remaining radical followers of Hubert, and even some of Robespierre's colleagues on the Committee of Public Safety, met to coordinate their actions for the next day. The conspirators included those who had themselves been enthusiastic supporters of the terror, but now feared for their own lives.
The next day, July 27th, Robespierre attempted to speak again at the convention, but was shouted down with cries of, down with the tyrant. When Louis Saint-Just, one of Robespierre's closest allies, began to speak, Jean Lambert Tallien interrupted him and denounced Robespierre. The president of the convention, who had once been Robespierre's ally, gave the floor to Robespierre's enemies. They accused him of plotting to murder the entire convention.
After hours of chaotic debate, the convention voted for the arrest of Robespierre, his younger brother, Saint-Just, and the mayor of Paris. Initially, the coup appeared to fail. When officers of the convention attempted to arrest Robespierre and the others, the Paris Commune, aka the city government, refused to accept the arrest.
The prisoners were taken to various government buildings rather than prisons. The commune, still loyal to Robespierre, called out the National Guard and prepared to march on the convention to free him. For a few hours that night, the outcome hung in the balance. Had the commune acted decisively, it may have repeated the past when armed Parisians had effectively intimidated the national legislature.
However, the convention declared the commune and Robespierre supporters to be outlaws, a status that meant that they could be executed without trial upon identification. As rains fell over Paris that night, much of the National Guard that was summoned by the Commune drifted away. The decisive moment came when the convention forces arrived at the Hotel de Ville, where Robespierre and his supporters had gathered. Finding the building nearly undefended, they easily took control.
In the confusion, Robespierre suffered a shattered jaw from a gunshot. Whether this was a suicide attempt or inflicted by one of his captors remains debated by historians. His brother Augustine attempted to escape by jumping out of a window but broke his leg. On July 28th, Robespierre and 21 of his closest associates were guillotined without trial, having been declared outlaws.
Despite his terrible jaw wound, Robespierre was executed last amongst his group. When the executioner tore off the bandage on his jaw before placing him under the blade, Robespierre reportedly let out a terrible scream. His only sound that entire day. The day after, 71 members of the Paris Commune followed them to the guillotine, and within the following week, another 12 were executed as Robes Pieris.
The fall of Robespierre marked the end of the Reign of Terror. The period that followed, known as the Thermidorian Reaction, saw the release of many prisoners, the expulsion of radicals from the convention, and a general relaxation of the revolutionary fervor. power shifted to the more conservative property-owning classes, and a new constitution established the Directory Government in 1795. The dramatic events of July 1794 demonstrated how quickly revolutionary politics could shift.
Rose Pierre, who had been virtually untouchable as the embodiment of revolutionary virtue, fell in just three days, brought down by fear, political factions, and his own unwillingness to compromise. His fall marked not just the end of the terror, but a fundamental recalibration of the entire French Revolution itself. away from radical virtue towards pragmatic stability, setting the eventual stage for the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte.
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