The Rise and Fall of the Aztec Empire

Learn more about the rise and fall of the Aztec Empire on this episode of Everything Everywhere Daily.

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The Aztecs succeeded the Toltecs in the Valley of Mexico, the site of present day Mexico City. It's a high plateau surrounded by volcanic mountains that sits about seven thousand three hundred feet above sea level. Building in this unique setting, the Aztec civilization thrived in a valley defined by five interconnected lakes.

The Aztecs constructed a major urban area atop the swampy island in the heart of Lake Texcoco. The choice of this location is the very reason why Mexico City is sinking today. In 1428, the city of Technochitlan, under the leadership of Itzko Adl, joined forces with the cities of Texkoko and Tulkolopan to overthrow the powerful city of Atska Posaltko, home of the Tepanak. Together, these three city states defeated the Tempanaks and formed the Triple Alliance.

This alliance is what historians usually mean by the Aztec Empire. In theory it was a partnership amongst Technoteatland, Texcoco, and Telcopon. In practice, TechnoShtland gradually became dominant, Texcoco remained a major but secondary partner, and Tucklopan became the weakest of the three. The Mexico Valley is a terrific place for agriculture thanks to its favorable climate. However, there are few rivers in the region, so the use of lakes for irrigation was essential.

As urban centers expanded around Lakes Texcoco, the Aztecs faced mounting pressure to increase food production for their growing population. To address this need, the Aztecs developed chinampas. Chinampas are floating gardens that maximize agricultural productivity, particularly in regions with no prominent river systems. Chinampas were cane frames that were filled with mud, weeds, and dirt floating on the lake, allowing the plants to receive constant irrigation.

Chinampus covered more than twenty thousand acres in the Five Lake Network, and each was approximately a quarter of an acre in size and were publicly owned and maintained by commoners. A common misconception about Aztec culture is that it was dominated by Mayan influence in its cultural and political practices. In truth, the Mayans occupied a completely different region of Mexico, and their civilization collapsed centuries before the emergence of the Aztecs.

A more appropriate description of their connection is that the Maya and the Aztecs were all part of the same mother culture. The cultural qualities of the states that occupied the region all traced their roots to the foundational cultures of Mexico. The Olmec civilization originated the calendar, subsequent regional cultures alternate over the centuries, and the Maya ultimately improved it.

The Aztec calendar was built on this and was a 365-day agricultural calendar divided into 18 months, each broken into 20-day increments with one five-day period at the end of the year. The number of festivals and deities they honored were all connected to agriculture and seasonal change. The Aztecs believe that proper observance of festivals prevented crop failure, plagues, or defeat in battle.

Aztec architects modeled their monumental public pyramids on the traditional Mesoamerican architectural archetypes. Remarkably, while these pyramids were not as tall as their Egyptian counterparts, classic Mesoamerican structures like the nearby Great Pyramid of Trolula were actually larger by volume than those of Giza.

Few Aztec traditions have garnered as much attention as the ball game. Known as Ola Malisli, the ball game was a ritual combination of sport and religious sacrifice. The game involved two teams hitting a dense rubber ball with their elbows, knees and hips to try to get it through a small hoop.

The Spanish were surprised at the brutality of the game. One Spanish observer wrote, quote, To protect themselves from the terrible blows of the ball, for the ball was solid, heavy, and hard as stone, they wore loincloths of thick leather and padded patches over their hips. Even so, I have seen players receive such terrible blows from the ball in the mouth or the stomach or the intestines that they drop dead on the spot.

Others were so severely bruised on their thighs and hips that blood had to be lanced or squeezed out of their wounds. End quote. Priests frequently sacrifice the losing teams, who are usually captive warriors from Aztec military victories. And few topics garner as much curiosity about the Aztecs as human sacrifice. The Aztec practice of human sacrifice grew out of a longstanding set of principles that remained consistent across Mesoamerican civilizations.

Across other mother culture societies, beginning with the Olmec, the peoples of the region believed in a cosmic debt owed to the gods who created the sun and the universe. In the Aztec language of Nahuat, the word for sacrifice is Nestawali, which literally means repayment of debt. The Aztecs paid their debt over and over with blood. Bloodletting was a way for every Aztec to repay the debt that they all owed.

Aztecs would often pierce their flesh with obsidian blades, thorn, or the stingers from stingrays. Piercings went through the earlobe, the gaps between the fingers, or even the tongue. The Aztecs believed the sacrifice was necessary for bountiful harvests, and priests conducted these rituals at the beginning and end of harvest throughout the Aztec world. Many victims, up to 20,000 per year, came from conquered areas, losing teams, defeated warriors, or slaves purchased for festivals.

The Aztecs and the Spanish collaborated on a history of the Aztecs known as the Florentine Codex. The codex was compiled by indigenous Aztec survivors who wrote the history in their native tongue, alongside Spanish friars who provided parallel commentary. The Florentine Codex describes the nature of human sacrifice by noting quote And the captive, as he went along, breaking his clay flutes, ascended the steps of the pyramid, and when he reached the summit, the priest seized him,

They threw him upon the sacrificial stone. Then one of them pierced his breast with an obsidian knife, reaching into the opening, and tore out his heart, offering it directly to the sun. End quote. Because the Spanish conquest destroyed so many primary Aztec sources, uncertainty still persists about the accuracy of our knowledge of Aztec religious practices. Sadly, not a single Aztec book survived the destruction following the Spanish conquest.

Juan de Zumaraga, Mexico's first archbishop, saw Aztec writings as obstacles to conversion and destroyed texts systematically. He gathered ancient books and administrative records from all over the Valley of Mexico, focusing heavily on the Royal Archives, and then set them all on fire. That being said, there are several Spanish accounts that do seem to offer an accurate appraisal of Aztec life before Cortez.

The Spanish accounts from the period of and after the conquest describe the Aztec cities as massive centers filled with glorious public buildings, festivals, and vibrant markets. The opulence of Spanish cities like Cordoba, Madrid, and Toledo defined Spanish expectations, and in many areas Tetnochitlan exceeded them. Spanning five square miles and home to more than 150,000 residents, the metropolis showcased breathtaking gardens and a massive imperial zoo.

Aztec merchants called Pochteca conducted business across great distances on foot, as there were no horses in the Americas before the arrival of the Spanish. The most prized commodities in Aztec markets were cacao beans, which served as currency to buy luxury items such as jade obsidian and feathers. Smaller farmer-style markets sold foodstuffs such as corn and fish. Aztec cities were home to a complicated network of social relationships that provided the framework for Aztec life.

The Aztec social order was anchored by the Papiltine, a hereditary nobility that controlled the empire's political and religious power. and the Kalpuli, the foundational commoner clans that organized the local labor, land distribution, and military recruitment. By the early sixteenth century, the nobility had amassed a disproportionate amount of the Aztec state's social, political, and economic capital.

This growing class disparity destabilized internal unity within the empire and ultimately paved the way for the Spanish to exploit these fractures. The Aztecs were governed by a great speaker who served as an emperor and oversaw other cities that elected their own speakers. The relationship, however, was very one-sided. The Aztecs would collect tribute from these neighboring states, enriching the emperor and his inner circle of nobles.

This arrangement created animosity between the central leadership of the Aztecs and the tributary states outside of the capital, who resented the relentless demands for tribute in the form of people, jade, food, and obsidian.

Seeking the immense riches of the Mexican states that he had heard of since reaching the Caribbean in fifteen oh four, Hernan Cortez looked towards Mexico as the ultimate opportunity to secure the wealth and prestige that he desired after participating in earlier regional conquests. In fifteen nineteen, Cortez amassed a force of approximately five hundred and fifty Spaniards, armed with steel blades, muskets, and horses.

When Cortez arrived on the coast, Imperial Scouts quickly alerted the Aztec leadership. Local governors greeted the Spanish guests diplomatically. According to oral traditions, attendants constantly fanned them with burning incense and aromatics. While the Aztecs observed strict diplomatic protocol, they also had a more practical motive, masking the horrible odor of the Spanish. The Aztecs maintain exceptionally high standards of daily hygiene, a trait that the conquistadors lacked.

Cortez quickly made his way to the Aztec capital, taking advantage of regional political divisions and tensions between the Aztecs and their tributary states. Cortez had few challenges finding Aztec enemies. Those who betrayed the Aztecs anticipated an easier life under the rule of the Spanish, but they completely miscalculated what lay ahead.

Cortez and his men arrived in the capital in fifteen nineteen. Montezuma II welcomed the Spanish into the city, not out of superstition, but to contain the small foreign force and to separate them from their thousands of indigenous allies. The Aztecs were well aware of the lethality of Spanish weaponry. Their fatal misunderstanding lay in how the Spanish intended to use it.

Anticipating a conventional Mesoamerican conquest aimed strictly at battlefield soldiers, the Aztecs were entirely unprepared for a European total war, one designed to bring systematic destruction to their entire way of life. The Spanish captured the Aztec Emperor and then attempted to assault the city on June 30, 1520, in a battle known as the Knight of Sorrows. The attack was repelled and the Spanish were driven out of the city.

Upon their return the next year, the Spanish used their greatest weapon yet, smallpox. By the time the Spanish once again attempted to conquer Tetnochitlan, nearly fifty percent of the population had died from the disease. The capital eventually collapsed under the weight of the Spanish seas with the help of disease and guns. The Spanish captured the city in fifteen twenty one after a fierce defense led by the new Aztec emperor, Kawo Temak.

Cortez tortured Quabo Temak and kept him alive as a puppet ruler to provide legitimacy to the Spanish transition. When the Spanish were satisfied with the gold and the control that they had, Cortez ordered his execution by hanging. The Aztec Empire was only around for about a century, yet in that short period of time it built one of the greatest cities in the world and dominated much of central Mexico.

Its rise from a small island settlement to a powerful imperial capital was extraordinary, and its fall was one of the most dramatic turning points in world history. The story of the Aztecs is a reminder that empires can appear permanent at their peak, but even the strongest can collapse with astonishing speed when disease, enemies, and circumstances all converge.

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